Irrigation & Drainage

Microorganisms are present in stormwater. Their numbers and diversity is influenced by the microbial flora of that environment and they can come from different sources namely the air, soil and through human activity. Stormwater runoffs carry pollutants including microorganisms. Stormwater runoffs that contain organic materials and some pathogenic microorganisms when discharged into bodies of water can lead to outbreaks of infections if such receiving bodies of water are not treated to remove the microbial contaminants. Another effect of microbial presence in a stormwater runoff discharged into a body of water without treatment is the possibility of creating anoxic condition in the receiving water body. This happens when the aerobic heterotrophic bacteria in the water body multiplies thereby utilizing the dissolved oxygen in the water. The end result is the death of fish and other aquatic organisms that require oxygen for survival. Stormwater runoffs can be treated biologically through activated sludge process, trickling filter or through the oxidation pond method to reduce the organic and microbial load. The effluents resulting from such treatment can then be disinfected to destroy the remaining microorganisms and organic matter in the water.

Keywords: stormwater, microorganisms, runoff, pollution

Most city development always deal with problem of drainage in various scale. Some design in small area could not enough to solve the drainage problem. The authority  should provide the larger scale of design that cover entire area of city. This design tried to solved the drainage problem in Bireun Aceh that has sub drainage laid from rural area to the sea. Design used steady flow concept.

During the last two decades Azerbaijan has initiated reform of irrigation water management through a complex of measures, including realization of irrigation management transfer (IMT) for decentralization and redelegating of management responsibilities at on-farm level by establishment of water users' associations (WUAs). The purpose of this study is to analyse and demonstrate experience gained from the past, success and difficulties arising from IMT policy in the country in a local and international comparative context and, based on the current situation, to propose development needs. WUA concept development is being implemented under World Bank rehabilitation programmes, but not all WUAs have yet been covered with the rehabilitation programme. Considering this situation, the measures should be elaborated for three types of WUA, which are: (i) already rehabilitated; (ii) WUAs under rehabilitation: (iii) those not yet included in the rehabilitation programme due to lack of investment and insufficient eligibility criteria of their current performance. International experience with different development backgrounds shows similarity and difference in realization of IMT in Azerbaijan and supports better understanding of the emergence of WUAs. Besides institutional development of WUAs, improvement works should cover the entire service area, including on-farm infrastructure, land reorganization and levelling works. RÉSUMÉ Au cours des deux dernières décennies, l'Azerbaïdjan a lancé la réforme de la gestion de l'eau d'irrigation par une série de mesures complexes, y compris le transfert de la gestion de l'irrigation (IMT), en décentralisant et en re-déléguant les responsabilités de gestion au niveau de la ferme par la création d'associations d'utilisateurs d'eau (AUE). Le but de cette étude est d'analyser et de souligner l'expérience acquise depuis le temps passé, le succès et les difficultés surgies de la politique de IMT par référence aux contextes local et international, et pour proposer des besoins en développement. Le concept de développement des AUE est mis en oeuvre dans le cadre des programmes de réhabilitation de la Banque Mondiale, mais toutes les AUE ne sont pas encore couvertes par ce programme de réhabilitation. Compte tenu de cette situation, les mesures devraient être élaborées pour trois types d'AUE, qui sont: (i) déjà réhabilitée; (ii) AUE en cours de réhabilitation ; (iii) ne figurant pas encore dans le programme de réhabilitation, en raison soit du manque d'investissement, soit de performances trop faibles en égard aux critères d'admissibilité. L'expérience internationale dans différents contextes de développement présente des simil-itudes et des différences avec l'Azerbaïdjan dans la réalisation de l'IMT, et aide à comprendre l'émergence des associations d'irrigants en Azerbaïdjan. Outre le développement institutionnel des associations d'irrigants, les travaux d'amélioration doivent couvrir la totalité de la zone de service, y compris les installations à la ferme, la réorganisation des terres et les travaux de planage.

This paper presents an assessment study conducted to investigate the structural condition of a drainage shaft that is part of a very large aqueduct system located in the Northeastern United States. A comprehensive three-dimensional finite-element model was generated to simulate the hydrostatic uplift pressures the shaft is subjected to. The behavior of the steel shaft cover, anchor rods, other connecting elements, and the surrounding granite rock stratum are analyzed. The finite-element model covers a large cylindrical region with a radius of 32 m around the shaft centerline to a depth of 15.2 m. The rock material was modeled on the Drucker-Prager failure criterion since the von Mises criterion is not perfectly suited for modeling the yielding of a frictional material like granite rock. A condition assessment study like the one described in this paper required an extensive finite-element model created with comprehensive software like ANSYS to investigate the load and stress distribution of uplift forces through the elements of the shaft to ensure structural integrity. The special features of ANSYS SOLID185 elements are a good fit for the simulation of the nearly incompressible rock stratum of this study. SOLID185 elements with advanced capabilities such as fracture parameter calculations, stress stiffening, creep, nonlinear stabilization, and linear perturbation are used to model the rock. Since a structural condition assessment of a drainage shaft modeled with ANSYS SOLID185 finite elements have not been discussed in detail in a technical publication before, this paper fills that gap.

The declining availability of fresh water has become a worldwide problem, which maintains the development of alternative, secondary quality water resources for agricultural use. Several studies recommend that give attention for selected crops that can tolerate a degree of water and salinity stresses when saline water is used for irrigation. In this study, the effects of different irrigation intervals at different salinity levels of irrigation water on Soybean yield and their impacts investigated using three irrigation intervals (I1 =3 days, I2=4 days and I3=5 days) with four salinity levels (S1=4 dSm-1, 5 dSm-1 and 6 dSm-1) in a factorial combination using CRD with three replications. The result showed that salinity, irrigation interval and their interaction were highly significance effects (p<0.001) on number of pod per plant, number of seed per plant and grain yield of Soybean. The highest number of pod number (88.33), grain yield (2.31 ton/ha) and number of seed per plant (172...

Rain water harvesting and artificial recharge to groundwater has gained momentum in recent years for providing    sustainability to water-stressed aquifers as natural replenishment of ground water reservoir is a slow process and is often unable to keep pace with the excessive and continued exploitation of groundwater resources. A case study of Vatrak sub-watershed, Sabarmati basin, has been carried out to identify suitable sites for rain water harvesting structures. The various geo-informatics based thematic maps such as land use map, geomorphology map, slope map, drainage map, Digital Elevation Model, etc. were prepared in order to evaluate the sub-watershed. With the help of geo-visualization of water resources and other relevant natural resource data pertaining to Vatrak sub-watershed, issues of knowledge sharing and information communication can be effectively addressed. Based on multi-thematic multi-criteria evaluation, different types of structures suited for rain water harvesting and artificial recharge to groundwater have been suggested for providing sustainability to the water-stressed aquifers in the sub-watershed.

This study has been conducted to analyze the hypsometric properties of drainage basins in Karnataka. In
constructing the hypsometric integral curve, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with 300 m spatial resolution has
been created based on the Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN). The topographical map has been used as a base
map for generating contours to create the TIN model. The hypsometric integral curve results, derived from the
DEM, show that six drainage basins are in Maturedly Dissected Landforms while the South Ponnar basin is in an old
state of dissection. The result of hypsometric curve shows that the drainage basins are significantly different from
each other. The Moran’s I shows a negative spatial autocorrelation between the drainage basins and it indicates that
HI values are random in the study area.

This study is carried out to evaluate the efficiency of the management and maintenance of the drainage system at Taman Damai Jaya, Skudai. A total of 100 residents are randomly selected from the total population to be the respondents of the study.  A set of questionnaire will be design to gain primary data from the respondents about their perception about the management and maintenance work that has been carried out by the local authority for that area. This research is focusing on the management and maintenance aspect for the drainage system. The expected result is to identify the important maintenance work criteria for the drainage system and also determine the efficiency level of the management and maintenance of the drainage system.

Africa is a continent with a variety of important geographic features that have sculptured its surface giving it an all times scenic beauty as well as providing the continent with the scarce natural resources.
These features have proved to be of much importance that the continent seems lifeless without them! This paper looks at the drainage system together with the few geologic signatures and their importance to the African continent and its aggressively growing population.

A new technology (Capiphon Drainage Belt, or CDB) is applicable to drainage and irrigation tasks.  When compared with existing drainage technologies such as slotted pipe, the technology is expected to provide:
• simpler installation
• less clogging
• lower susceptibility to physical damage
• greater control of the water table, rather than simple overflow or excess water removal.

The CDB is a novel design that consists of multiple keyhole-section channels in a thin plastic belt.  The channels take up water by capillary action, and are not prone to clogging.  Once water is flowing in the tubes, it continues to flow by siphon action even if the belt is not laid on a uniform slope.
This paper is the first of a series that will report on tests into the effectiveness and behaviour of the new technology (CDB).  The simple field drainage trial reported in this paper will consist of a series of plots with conventional (ag pipe) and CDB drainage systems.
The plots will be slowly wet and then irrigated until steady state flow is achieved.  Irrigation or rain water supply and outflows from the various plots will be recorded.  Soil moisture conditions will be monitored by surface measurements and subsurface profiling using dielectric and resistivity methods.  Water samples will be taken for basic analysis of chemical and particulate parameters.  Trial plot testing and completion is underway now (August 2005) and results will be finalised in November 2005.  The plots will be turfed with a standard grass with known properties, allowing an estimate of evapotranspiration. 
It is hoped to achieve a steady state or pseudo steady state condition, allowing water balance modelling of the systems, and consequent indications of flow regimes and response behaviour.
Current results are for installation and costing comparisons, and preliminary static moisture contents and resistivity profiles.  The moisture content results show that the methodology will allow good definition of the profile and drainage systems.
The CDB is more expensive than traditional drainage materials, which was reflected in the costing for the trail plots.  Costing estimates for more typical installations indicate that CDB may not be more expensive than traditional drainage installations, due to the much lower installation costs.  When the behaviour of CDB is better understood, it is anticipated that revised layout and installation methods may further reduce these installation costs.  It is also expected that CDB would become cheaper as production and supplies increase.

Evapotranspiration for vegetables changes from area to area depending on crop type, soil and climate conditions. In view of this, this study assessed reference evapotranspiration of spinach using pan evaporation with the aim of determining the optimum crop water requirement of spinach in Minna. The study took soil sample of the irrigation farm to compute total depth of water in the root zone and irrigation interval in the month of March and June. The study installed pan evaporation in the crop land (4.17m by 1.70m) and water loss after 24 hours was estimated and multiplied by crop factor 𝐾𝑐 to obtain reference pan evapotranspiration. The study obtained daily rainfall and temperature data from Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Mimet) between March and June, 2016 to compute 𝐸𝑇𝑜 Blaney-Criddle and Thornthwaite. The computed 𝐸𝑇𝑜pan, 𝐸𝑇𝑜Blaney-Criddle and 𝐸𝑇𝑜Thornthwaite were subjected to Analysis of Variance using Duncan test. The optimum water requirement by spinach was found high in the month of March as compared to June. Also the amount of water loss from both agricultural land and spinach using pan evaporation method were 2.8mm/day and 2.38mm/day respectively. In comparison, the study shows there was no significant differences between the three methods as the calculated F value (1.073E3) tested significant at 95% confidence level. Based on the mean value of the 𝐸𝑇𝑜methods, apart from pan evaporation method Blaney-Criddle method can also be used. The study concluded that there was high yield of spinach in the month of March as compared to the
month of June. The study recommended that there is need to take soil sample of the study area at different growth stages of spinach.
Keywords: Reference Evapotranspiration, Spinach, Evaporation Pan, Blanney-Criddle

However, irrigation practice is poor in Ethiopia, increases agricultural production and productivity. The study was conducted in Haramaya district, Eastern Ethiopia. The object of this study is to see contribution of small scale irrigation towards increasing agricultural production, and identify the factors that affecting the use of small scale irrigation. From the district, three peasant associations were purposively selected each from different agro ecological classifications. Sampling size of 116 households was interviewed and Secondary data were also collected from the office. Three different types of irrigation were identified; Surface irrigation type using furrow method of irrigation is the most common irrigation type in the study area, which accounts about 66.5%. The study indicated that, water scarcity, lack improved seed, and disease outbreak and drought were among the major constraints of irrigation practices in the study area. Therefore practicing water harvesting and supplying improved technologies provide extended service regularly for farmers should be practiced in the future.

In Ethiopia, maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important cereal crops, but the performance of maize growth and yield is very low due to inappropriate sowing depth. A field experiment was conducted at Wachemo University, Hadiya zone of Southern Nation Nationalities of People Regional States to evaluate the effect of sowing depth on germination and seedling vigoursity of maize (Zea mays L.). Local maize variety was used with four planting depth (5cm, 10cm, 15cm, and 20cm) with three replications were used in the study. Data on germination percentage, leaf number, leaf size, and seedling vigoursity were recorded during the growth stage of the crop. The effect of planting depth was highly significant in leaf size, leaf number and seedling vigoursity of maize. The planting depth at 5cm showed high plant germinated, the number of leaves, leaf size, and seedling vigoursity as compared to the other treatments. However, the planting depth at 15cm and 20cm were showed shorter leaf size, a small number of leaf and low germination rate. Thus, deepest sowing depth showed poor growth performance in the parameters considered. However, the results of this experiment were only on the growth parameters but did not include the yield. Therefore, the tentative recommendation for sowing depth at 5cm for this study area of Hadiya people of Ethiopia. Finally, for the better recommendation similar experiment is needed to be carried out until the final yield of maize.

The objective of this article is to identify the determinants of the adoption of new irrigation technologies in Moroccan agriculture. The research is carried out on a sample of 82 farmers from the Souss-Massa region (Morocco). The results from the estimation of a binary logit model show that the variables: Age, level of education, non-farm income, perceived utility, possession of a computer, farm size, access to credit, ease of use, influence the probability of adoption of new irrigation technologies among farmers. The theoretical and managerial implications of this research are discussed.

Bendung selain digunakan sebagai peninggi elevasi muka air, juga dapat digunakan sebagai alat ukur debit air. Bendung dan bendungan masing-masing memiliki fungsi yang berbeda.  Bendung dibuat sebagai peninggi elevasi muka air sehingga dengan kondisi permukaan air yang telah dibendung air dapat dialirkan ke tempat yang diinginkan.  Sedangkan bendungan digunakan untuk menampung aliran, bila terjadi over flow diharapkan tidak terjadi banjir besar yang diakibatkan terlalu tingginya elevasi permukaan air yang mengalir pada saluran tersebut, atau dengan kata lain fungsi daripada bendungan tersebut sebagai pengendali banjir.