The Use of the Old Testament in the New

The opening of Mark’s Gospel has received substantial scholarly attention over the past century. While initial debates largely centered on nailing down its precise ending, narrative criticism and increased attention to intertextuality have attuned scholars to the ways in which the prologue establishes a set of narrative and theological agendas for the rest of the Gospel. This study builds on many of these previous contributions by drawing attention to the function of Mark’s opening citation (Mark 1:2–3). Specifically, I argue that the composite citation functions as a prophetic script and that the remainder of the prologue functions as its dramatic enactment. Reading the prologue in this way suggests that God is, in fact, the central actor of the prologue, the one who summons and commissions the dramatis personae to enact his will. The script thus discloses that at the heart of the good news about Jesus Christ stands the revelation that Christ is the “you” who both takes up Israel’s vocation as the covenant people (cf. Exod 23:20) and enacts the glorious manifestation of Israel’s Kyrios (cf. Mal 3:1; Isa 40:3).

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This paper argues that the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7) can profitably be understood as a second Deuteronomy. The author makes his case through the development of strong conceptual links between these texts such as presentation and interpretation of Torah, Jesus as the greater Moses within Matthew, and the concluding calls at Matt 7:24-27 and Deut 30:11-20 to choose obedience (=life). This linking has many interesting results including advancing the concept of "Torah" as instruction that demands a response because it comes from God to man through authorized teachers and the strengthening of the depiction of Jesus as the greater Moses (i.e., the greater law giver/interpreter).

Author's Note I am thankful for the opportunity to present this paper at the 2021 EABS. I am thankful for the organizers and the participants. I wish to state up front that this is a draft of an idea. This is the first step toward a paper. This is a draft of a draft. In other words, I am very thankful for the kind reception and assistance that was given. In that vein, I have included the comments that were given in the Canonical Approaches to the Bible program unit after I read the paper. Their comments will make the paper better in the end.

This is an abridged version of my "Counting Stars with Abraham and the Prophets" (JETS 2015). Paul’s application of the “seed” designation to both Jews and Gentiles in Christ marks a redemptive-historical shift from an age of promise to an age of fulfillment. Both the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants initially restricted “seed” language to physical descent and marked covenant membership by physical birth. Nevertheless, they also pointed ahead to a day when covenantal, spiritual adoption would replace ethnicity and biology as the foundational mark of the patriarch’s “fatherhood.” The OT’s promised royal deliver would initiate this eschatological and ecclesiological development, which by its nature supports a progressive covenantal flavor of Baptistic new covenant ecclesiology.

This is an annotated bibliography on important intertextual works. After this bibliography is given, an extensive general bibliography is also included. For interpreters, especially biblical interpreters intending to work on the subject or use intertextuality as their approach, this may be a useful tool.

The presence of a female donkey (a “jenny”) in Matthew’s account of the triumphal entry (Matt 21:1-9) has been perplexing because her presence is not mentioned in either of Matthew’s sources, Mark 11:1-10 and Zech 9:9. Some scholars hold that the jenny comes from another tradition, but this does not make her presence a fulfillment of the prophecy. Others hold that Matthew broke the parallelism of Zech 9:9, where the humble Messiah is to ride into Jerusalem “on a (male) donkey, and on a colt,” but this too does not account for a female donkey at the scene. In this article, I argue for a plenary reading of the Hebrew prophecy where Matthew sees the presence of the jenny fulfilled in Zechariah’s characterization of the colt as a “son of jennies.”

In Romans 5:12–21, Paul seems to have realized that his own interpretation of Genesis 3 – of Adam’s death for disobedience and, perhaps especially, of Adam’s affect on subsequent humans – was not a universally accepted interpretation. He anticipates a view “out there,” either among his readers or those around them, which assumes or argues that Adam’s action in Eden did not end in death and/or did not affect or could not have affected subsequent humans, at least not in quite the extremity that Paul suggests. How can “death” actually be for “all” even when subsequent people did not transgress like Adam? Is everyone’s death because of Adam’s choice? Did Adam himself even die for his disobedience? Arresting ideas and intriguing ambiguities occur within Romans 5:12–21. This chapter focuses on a very particular question: When Paul introduces Adam and Genesis 3, why does he interrupt himself in verse 12? He seems to realize that people may disagree with him about Adam. We do not need to speculate about this. He is right. This becomes much more clear and concrete (and consequently so too does Paul’s own view) when we listen carefully to another Jewish interpreter of Adam in Genesis 3: Philo of Alexandria.

One of the distinctive features of the Fourth Gospel is the emphasis it places on the " name " (ὄνομα) of God. As the earliest Christian texts already exhibit a shift toward Jesus's name as the cultic or divine name, what might have motivated the Evangelist to this recovery of the divine name category? Joshua J. F. Coutts argues that the divine name acquired particular signicance through the Evangelist's reading of Isaiah, which, in combination with the polemical experience and pastoral needs of early Christians, formed the impetus for his interest in and emphasis on the divine name.

R. Joel Kennedy’s, “The Recapitulation of Israel: Use of Israel’s History in Matthew 1:1–4:11” explains the New Testament’s use of the Old Testament in Matthew 1:1–4:11 in terms of recapitulation. Israel’s history is restated in the life of Jesus within Matthew’s narrative progressing Matthew’s Christology. According to Kennedy, the recapitulation of Israel’s history in Matt 1:1–4:11 is seen in the genealogy (1:1–17), the birth narrative (2:1–23) and the baptism narrative (3:1–4:11). Fitting Kennedy’s thesis is an instance of intertextuality between Matt 3:1 and Judg 21:25. In Matt 3:1, the phrase, “In those days,” Ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις alludes to Judg 21:25 “In those days,” Ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις, in order to recapitulate the summation of Israel’s need for a king in the days of the Judges, “in those days there was no king in Israel, everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judg 16:7; 17:1; 19:1; 21:25). This intertextual allusion has the effect of saying, “at this time” Israel needed a king just as they did during the era of the Judges. Rather than saying “at that time,” Matthew uses the unique construction Ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις in order to allude to Judg 21:25 “in those days.” Richard Hays’ standard criteria for detecting intertextuality substantiate the identification, interpretation, and significance of this allusion to the Old Testament. This intertextual allusion augments the significance of Christ as King in Matthew and clarifies what some understand to be a textual awkwardness.

The article surveys recent scholarship on the use of creation imagery in the Gospel of John, with the aim of presenting rather exhaustive register of possible references. Both the obvious and the less clear-cut allusions to Gen 1–3 are discussed, the main focus being to accumulate and assess evidence (for or against) all the apparent references to creation imagery. Included in this examination are several unconvincing and even far-fetched proposals advanced by some modern scholars, in order to give the fullest possible picture of current discourse on these issues. After discussing the creation theme in the Prologue (1:1–18), the article explores the presence of creation imagery in the Book of Signs (1:19–12:50) and the Book of Glory (13:1–21:25)

Rom 4.17d is often read as referring to creation, perhaps even creatio ex nihilo. Others argue that this doctrine was not yet conceptually available. After exploring what ‘nothing’ means in similar phrases in Paul’s ancient context (2 Macc 7.28 and Philo), my first conclusion is that if Rom 4.17d refers to creation then Paul’s ‘nothings’ most likely do not refer to an absolute nihil. However, after exploring Rom 4.17 in the context of Paul’s argument, my final conclusion is that in Rom 4.17d Paul does present absolute ‘nothings’, though in God’s speech to Abraham, not at creation. Paul’s theology encompasses God’s authority and causation ex nihilo.

This paper (in Dutch) investigates the possibility that, for the first chapter(s) of his gospel, Luke reworked a source (either Hebrew or Aramaic) which had at its centre the birth of John the Baptist. It deals with questions as:
-was Zacharias, the father of John, murdered in the Temple?
-was Zacharias only mute or also deaf?
-was there an original annunciation to Elisabeth?
-why did Elisabeth hide herself and for whom?
-does the Visitatio go back to the story of an angel visiting Elisabeth?
-who sang the Magnificat: Mary or Elisabeth?
-can some details in the Protoevangelium of James (Infancy Gospel of James) be explained by the author being influenced by this hypothetical source about John the Baptist?

Texts and themes from Exodus play key roles in the teaching of Jesus and several New Testament writers. This includes the expressions "finger of God" and "He is not God of the dead but of the living, Paul's ideas about election, and the Fourth Evangelist's Prologue (John 1:1-18), in which the Logos is described as "full of grace and truth" and takes up residence in a tent of skin.

What are the New Testament writers doing with Israel's psalms? Ben Witherington III attempts to answer this question by examining select psalms across the Psalter and their usage in the New Testament in Psalms Old and New. In this review, I highlight several issues that are worthy of further reflection.

Ephesians 6:10–17 is typically understood as either a call to engage in spiritual warfare with the "powers" or as a plea for ethical living. While these two interpretations are not necessarily incorrect, they are likely incomplete. More specifically, they do not account for the author’s use of Isaiah in v. 14–15, 17 and how this text summarizes the entire letter. When one considers these two factors, it becomes reasonable to conclude that this text portrays the church as a community of “divine-warriors” who continue Christ’s mission by extending the new creation inaugurated by His sacrificial death and resurrection.

Introduction to Messianic Judaism provides a description of what the Messianic Jewish community looks like today at its center and on its margins. The first section of the book traces the ecclesial contours of the community, providing a socio-historical and theological snapshot of the community's origins, where it is presently and where it is heading. Alongside these chapters, the book also includes a number of essays on biblical and theological issues central to the identity of Messianic Judaism. The twelve contributors to the first part of the book are recognized leaders in the Messianic Jewish community. They work with various organizations, including the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations, the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America, the International Alliance of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues, the Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council, Tikkun International, Chosen People Ministries, Messianic Jewish Theological Institute, Israel College of the Bible and the New School for Jewish Studies. Fourteen scholars from a wide spectrum of Christian backgrounds have written essays for the second part of the book. Their participation signals a growing academic and ecclesial interest in Messianic Judaism. Since the 1970s, a sea change has taken place in New Testament studies that has far-reaching implications for how the church evaluates Messianic Judaism. A broad reassessment of the New Testament writers’ view of Judaism has occurred since the publication of E. P. Sanders’s seminal work Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977), and this reevaluation continues unabated. The contributors to the second part of Introduction to Messianic Judaism draw from this recent scholarship and demonstrate how post-supersessionist interpretation of the New Testament results in readings of the biblical text that are consistent with Messianic Judaism. The final section of the book is written by Joel Willitts who provides a summary and synthesis of the essays, explaining how they shed light on the ecclesial context and biblical foundations of Messianic Judaism.

“At the feet of Gamaliel…” (Acts 22:3) Application of Jewish Exegesis in the 1 Corinthians

In the presented book, I have conducted research on the sources of Paul’s theology in the light of Judaism in his time, focusing mainly on Pharisees, but without neglecting other Judaic traditions of this period. These studies do not, however, focus on comparative studies of Paul’s theology and rabbinic theology, but rather on comparative studies in the field of hermeneutics. This includes methods of interpretation and presentation the text of the sacred Scriptures of Israel and the method of the construction of theological thought. This perspective is shown in the embodiment of the methods of rabbinic exegesis in 1 Corinthians, which also established the basis for further studies devoted to Corpus Paulinum.
The research in this paper is largely focused on the presentation and use of codified interpretation methods by Rabbi Hillel, which are connected to rabbinic tradition. Hillel, one of the most prominent figures of rabbinic Judaism, is represented by rabbinic sources as the founder of the exegetical school of Pharisees. In the pantheon of ancient rabbis, the pride of place also goes to Rabbi Gamaliel I (Elder), the grandson of Hillel, who is a bit younger than Hillel and is recognized as a mentor and master of the Apostle Paul. In this way, at least in the first frame, Paul seems to be the heir according to the tradition of the school of Hillel. While analyzing the sources, I examine the possibility of relation between Gamaliel and Hillel and the possible relationship they had with Paul. These studies lead to a better understanding of Paul in regard to the environment and the religious traditions of his time, enabling a better pinpoint of the source of his theology. These studies also give the opportunity to answer the question whether Apostle Paul can be bound to a particular school of theology, and whether or not he was a Hillelite.
The use Hillel’s hermeneutics in the exegetical study of the Paul’s texts gives a better understanding of many places in the Corpus Paulinum, in which the apostle constructs the thoughts in compliance with the rules learned in pharisaical school.
The choice of 1 Corinthians, as a work designed to show the relationship of Paul with hermeneutics of Judaism, was driven by several factors. The first of them is the certainty that 1 Corinthians is the oldest of the Great Letters of Paul and one of the oldest of his works in general, which allows a glimpse into the early thought process of one of the Apostle’s. Based on the results of this study I will be able to continue the work on the application of exegetical methodology in later writings and observe any possible changes. Secondly, the Church at Corinth is a community which consisted of not only pagans, but also Jews, giving Paul a number of possibilities to appeal to the text of Scripture and apply the proper exegetical methods. Finally, the letter is quite extensive (with its 16 chapters), which gives great opportunities to fully grasp the hermeneutic perspective.
The work consists of five main chapters: 1. Interpretation in Antiquity, 2. The hermeneutic of Rabbi Hillel, 3. Gamaliel and Paul; 4. The application of rabbinic exegesis in 1 Corinthians, 5. The theology of Paul in 1 Corinthians as a result of using Jewish methods of interpretation of Scripture.
The issue of ancient interpretation and its methodology is discussed in Chapter 1 of the dissertation. It concerns two cultural circles: Hellenism and Judaism, since not only do they impinge on each other, but also on the thought of the Apostle of Nations. I present the philosophical and legal methodology in the context of the Hellenistic philosophy. These are associated with the interpretation of the world and the texts of major importance for the Greek and Roman religion and philosophy, as well as Greek and Roman law. Within Judaism I point out many traditions which, in a specified way are related to the biblical message, and which are certified by midrashim, targums, pesher, as well as by the representatives of the Jewish literature of Alexandria (Septuagint, Aristobulus Peneas and Philo).
Chapter 2 of my dissertation focuses on the hermeneutics of Rabbi Hillel. I present in it the theory and examples of the use of seven middot included in the corpus hermeneuticum of Rabbi Hillel. Therefore, this chapter presents the methods of interpretation: 1. Qal wa-ḥomer (rmwxw lq); 2. Gezera szawa (hwwX hrzg); 3. Binjan ab mi-katub echad (dxa bwtkm ba !ynb); 4. Binjan ab mi-schne ketubim (mybwtk ynXm ba !ynb); 5. Kelal u-ferat u-ferat u-kelal (llkw jrpw jrpw llk); 6. Ke-joṣe bo be-maqom aḥer (rxa ~wqmb wb acwyk) and 7. Dabar ha-lamed me-‘injano (wnyny[m dmlh rbd).
In addition, Chapter 2 presents the rabbinic sources, the state of research into the methods of Hillel and the possible reasons for introduction of his hermeneutic in the area of Palestinian Judaism of the Second Temple period.
The extraction of the methodology of Hillel and placing it in a separate section is motivated by the fact that it is the first hermeneutical system in Judaism, and creates a very specific set. The Jewish exegetical methodology presented in Chapter 1 was “fished out” from the numerous textual evidence, where we can only read about it. Nowhere was it included in the terms of the theory of interpretation and never had it been codified. It is, however, an illustration of the thoughts and practices concerning the interpretation of the text. In addition, the description of the methods used in the interpretation of Hillel is placed in a separate section due to the fact that his theory of exegesis is the basis for the interpretation of Scripture in the circle of the Pharisees in which Paul grew up.
In Chapter 3, Gamaliel and Paul, I present the relationship between Gamaliel I and Paul, as well as its potential impact on Paul’s hermeneutic thoughts. Describing this issue in a separate chapter is extremely important and was done for several underlying reasons. First of all, the rabbinical literature leaves no certificate indicating that Gamaliel I was a member of the House of Hillel. Therefore, the work calls for special attention regarding this issue. Second of all, in none of his letters does Paul make a directly link to the person and the thought of Hillel. Thirdly, it is of significant importance to look at the perspective of the education system in the first century rabbinical schools, in order to shed more light on Paul’s studies “at the feet of Gamaliel” (Acts 22:3).
Chapter 4 shows the use of the methods of rabbinic exegesis in 1 Corinthians. The elements of interpretation of Scripture pointed out in it are strictly related to the methodology of Hillel, as they indicate the presence of other exegetical traditions of Judaism, which Paul was familiar with.
The final chapter (Chapter 5) is dedicated to the presentation of the synthesis of theological thoughts presented in 1 Corinthians. It is largely the result of Paul’s reinterpretation of the Bible of Israel, which he creates with the use of rabbinic exegetical workshop.
Presentation of the theological thought in the form of a concise synthesis of the theology of the letter is important, as it allows to show a full picture of the Paul’s thought. Illustrating the kerygma is important not only for the community of Corinth, but also for the one that can have its application in contemporary practical theology. This is this the moment in which exegesis fulfills its function in the extensive domain of theology.

What mysteries and more importantly what insights emanate from the catacombs of Rome, where the bones of saints and sinners rest in silent repose? Not wanting to cremate their dead due to their belief in a bodily resurrection, the early Roman Christians buried their dead in simple graves or in the burial vaults of sympathetic patricians. However, in the second century A.D. they began to excavate large-scale catacombs outside the city boundaries, along roads such as the Via Appia, as Roman law forbade burial within the city. The catacombs consist of vast systems of galleries and passages built on top of each other, several meters below the surface, with narrow steps descending as many as four stories. Burial niches (or loculi) were carved into walls (fig. 1) of the passages where the bodies were placed in stone sarcophagi. Besides burial, the catacombs were used for memorial services and celebrations of the anniversaries of martyrs.

This book explores how first- and second-century Christians read the Old Testament in order to differentiate the one God as multiple persons. The earliest Christians felt they could metaphorically “overhear” divine conversations between the Father, Son, and Spirit when reading the Old Testament. When these snatches of dialogue are connected and joined, they form a narrative about the unfolding interior divine life as understood by the nascent church. What emerges is not a static portrait of the triune God, but a developing story of divine persons enacting mutual esteem, voiced praise, collaborative strategy, and self-sacrificial love. This conversational divine story is explored as it ebbs and flows across the cosmos and through time. The result is a Trinitarian biblical and early Christian theology. While tracing this story, it is simultaneously argued that a new historical model is required for the New Testament and other early sources to explain how the doctrine of the Trinity first emerged—a model rooted in a little-known person-based ancient reading technique called prosopological exegesis. It is shown that prosopological exegesis is present throughout the earliest strata of Christian literature. This calls into question proposals that suggest Christology developed over time in the earliest church from low—Jesus as merely a messianic claimant—to high—Jesus as the preexistent Son of God. To the contrary, in agreement with Richard Bauckham’s Christology of Divine Identity (but simultaneously taking a different approach), it is argued that the earliest Christology was the highest.  Keywords:  Trinity, Christology, Christology of Divine Identity, prosopological exegesis, person, dialogue, Son of God, New Testament, Old Testament, early Christian

One of the most difficult citations in Ephesians is the use of the Psalms 68:18 in Ephesians 4:8, because of interpretive problems in it. Some scholars argue that Paul had inserted his own word “εδωκεν” than the original word “έλαβες “and caused intertextuality problem as well. My thesis is that Paul did not misquote the Psalms 68:18 in Ephesians 4:8 but emphasize its application in the view of scriptural warrant for Christ’s giving of gifts to the Church. Basically I am seconding the argument of Timothy G. Gombis who has proved that “the writer of Ephesians quotes Ps. 68:18 (MT 68:19; LXX 67:19) in Eph.

In 1 Tim 5:22, the author of the letter tells the recipient to avoid " laying hands on anyone quickly. " Traditionally, this phrase has been understood to refer to an action related either to ordination or to the receiving back into fellowship of lapsed believers. Neither view, however, is without difficulties. This article examines the various uses of the phrase " lay hands on " in the LXX and the Greek NT and argues that the best understanding of the phrase in 1 Tim 5:22 is to associate it with the manner in which hands are imposed as a sign of accusation. Thus, the passage refers neither to ordination nor to receiving lapsed believers but stands as a caution against hastily accusing an elder of wrongdoing.

Robert Alter has fruitfully analysed a number of OT narratives in light of (what he refers to as) a ‘betrothal type-scene’.  In the present note, I apply Alter’s approach in (what Alter would deem to be) a foreign context, namely John’s narrative of ‘the woman at the well’.  The results strike me as impressive.  John’s narrative departs from its generic type-scene at precisely those points where Jesus’ doctrine departs from what his interlocutor expects.  As such, Alter’s treatment of OT narratives sheds significant light on John’s narrative.

Keywords:  Biblical narrative, motif, John 4, Robert Alter, The Woman at the Well.

This study, an extended earlier version of a chapter later published in Apostasy in the New Testament Communities (Vol. 3), engages apostasy and restoration in the Epistle of James and engages the book of Job in relation to the themes of suffering, wisdom, and poverty

Perhaps more than any other single text, Exodus 19:4–6 provides the Bible’s clearest and simplest snapshot of God’s revealed purpose for the old covenant. This essay seeks to interpret this passage within its immediate and broader biblical context, understanding and applying it as the Christian Scripture God intended (Rom 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11; 2 Tim 3:16–17; 1 Pet 1:12). The study also supplies a case study in exegetical and theological inquiry following the twelve steps outlined in my book, HOW TO UNDERSTAND AND APPLY THE OLD TESTAMENT. Recognizably, the nine steps of exegesis and three steps of theology are all interrelated, and distinguishing them is somewhat artificial to the process of interpreting the Bible. Nevertheless, using a single passage to walk through the twelve steps should help students understand better the various aspects of exegesis and theology that are necessary for rightly handling God’s word of truth (2 Tim 2:15).

This paper applies structural, rhetorical, and semantic analysis to Hebrews 10:19-25. The translational and interpretive approach demonstrated here may be qualified as a functional, literary, top-down approach. The ultimate purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how a text-linguistic approach can greatly inhibit one's understanding and transmission of the biblical text, and thus to encourage others to do likewise.

The imagery and detail of John 18.1-21.25 imbue it with a number of important theological implications.  These include the concepts of substitutionary atonement, a new kingdom, a new power structure on the earth, and more besides.  In the present note, I discuss the extent to which our text depicts Jesus’ death and resurrection as the start of a new divine creation.  John’s narrative has a number of contact-points with Gen. 1.1-3.24, which cast it as a creation story, but not just any old creation narrative:  Jesus’ triumph in John’s ‘garden’ is set in deliberate contrast to Adam’s failure;  as such, it depicts a new redeemed creation as opposed to an old fallen creation.  New creation, then, is not an interpretation theme which must be superimposed on top of John’s narrative;  rather, it is an integral part of the plot and drama of John’s view of Christ’s crucifixion.

A phenomenon noticeable in many of Paul’s quotations of Scripture is the way that they
do not follow the texts he cites verbatim. This prompts the question as to whether his audience
would be competent enough to detect these differences. This study considers aspects such as text
variations, memory, notetaking, and rhetorical argument as potential factors related to Paul’s flexible
use of Scripture in Romans. The study then probes whether Paul’s audience, particularly believing
gentiles in Rome, would have known Jewish Scripture well enough to evaluate Paul’s use of Scripture.
Through congregational longevity, plurality of audience, synagogue influence, and other factors,
it is concluded that there is indeed competency among Paul’s auditors, but there is no evidence
suggesting that he is concerned about their reacting negatively to the elasticity of his quotations.


This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY

This is a short review of the book Keep Your Love On by Danny Silks of Bethel. The book us a very powerful and clear clarion call to the saints to learn to walk in love. It is based on workable models of loved used by Danny Silks over the yeaars. It is practical, clear and speaks with a teaching atuthority bordering on apostolic, but does not cover all aspects of the agape, eros, or phileo.

Atonement (kpr) as it is defined within the Levitical system is often conceived of in a manner which is roughly correct in terms of its gist, but quite mistaken in terms of its specifics.  It can more accurately, I believe, be summarised as follows.  (1)  The purpose of the sacrificial system is not, for the most part, to deal with ‘moral transgressions’, but to purify the Tabernacle (and those associated with it) when a very specific type of transgression occurs, namely an unintentional transgression or a transgression of a ceremonial nature.  (2)  The blood of OT sacrifices is not normally applied to ‘sinners’;  rather, it is applied to those who serve in the Tabernacle, or to the vessels or altar of the Tabernacle, or to the Tabernacle itself.  As mentioned above, its primary concern is the purification of God’s sacred space.  (3)  The sins of believers are completely forgiven in the OT;  hence, David can confidently proclaim, “As far as the east is from the west, so far does [the LORD] remove our transgressions from us”, and Paul can ground the doctrine of justification in David’s statements of his forgiveness (Rom. 4.7-8 cf. Psa. 32.1-2).  The OT believer does not obtain forgiveness through sacrifices (or even through ‘sacrifices infused with Christ’s power’).  He obtains forgiveness in exactly the same way as the NT believer, namely through faith in God insofar as God has revealed himself.  (4)  The sense in which the OT sacrificial system foreshadows the sacrifice of Christ is, therefore, as follows:  just as specific animal sacrifices put right specific ‘ceremonial issues’ in OT times, so now Christ’s sacrifices deal with all sin, be it ceremonial or moral, intentional or unintentional.  As such, Christ’s is a better sacrifice than the OT’s in every conceivable way.

What follows is an exploration of Luke 1.5-2.52’s flow and OT allusions.  In 1.5-2.52, Luke interweaves his account of John the Baptist’s appearance in Israel with Jesus of Nazareth’s appearance to great effect.  The two characters come face to face in ch. 3, at which point an old era in Israel’s history comes into contact with a new one.  Luke pays particularly close attention to the narratives of 1 Sam. 1-4 and Zech. 1-6, which portray the events of 1.5-2.52 as the inauguration of a new phase in ‘tabernacle history’.

A critical review of The Day the Revolution Began by Tom Wright.  Key words:  N T Wright, The Day the Revolution Began, critical review, atonement theology, OT narrative & allusion, propitiation, divine wrath, Gospels, substitutionary atonement, Wright’s treatment of the terms hilastērion and dikaiosynē, and the need for ‘whole Bible theology’.

The discovery of the law code of Hammurabi in 1901 reveals that there are close relationships between the law code of Hammurabi and the Book of Covenant. There are many case laws in both texts that are paralleled to one another. One of such is lex talion. It is the commonest law among case laws in Ancient Near Eastern codes. It is found in other four law codes. The contexts in these law codes are not the same. However, the lex talion in CoH 196-201 is more closely paralleled to the one in Exodus 21:22-25, and it will help greatly in the interpretation of Exodus 21:22-25. Thus, this research paper examines the lex talion in Exodus 21:22-25 in the light of the one in CoH 196-201 by providing its interpretation and applying it to the contemporary situation. The thesis of the paper is that the lex talion in Exodus 21:22-25 is not to be applied literally, rather figuratively whereby God alone is considered the center of existence and the final arbiter of justice.