Agrarian History

La mirada de la larga duración ofrece la coherencia diacrónica para un análisis teórico de las continuidades agrarias de la realidad guatemalteca, desde una perspectiva metodológica inspirada en la ecología política. Se parte de los principios agrarios coloniales propuestos por Severo Martínez Peláez y de sus equivalentes contemporáneos, en una sociedad cuya estructura agraria presenta síntomas agudos de injusticia social, deterioro medioambiental y conflictividad rural. El acaparamiento de tierras en este contexto es un fenómeno arraigado que perpetúa las causas estructurales de la pobreza rural. Se evidencia, de hecho, una estructuración de lo agrario
inspirada en un ethos señorial heredado de un pasado colonial y de las prácticas liberales puestas en marcha a finales del siglo XIX. Por otro lado, este trabajo rescata los instantes de humanidad benjamianos asociados a los esfuerzos contrahegemónicos encabezados por un sujeto colectivo en resistencia y, en definitiva, por una lógica coherente con una ética de la tierra. Finalmente, las continuidades identificadas se describen en el marco de una realidad contemporánea profundamente contradictoria, en la que asistimos a la disputa por el relato de un mundo
agrario abocado al colapso de la agricultura campesina, como resultado de la reificación generalizada de la vida rural. Avances de este estudio fueron presentados como comunicación en el II Congreso Internacional: Transiciones en la Agricultura y la Sociedad Rural, Los desafíos globales de la Historia Rural, en junio de 2018 en la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, España.

Fornlämningsbilden i Misterhult tyder på att befolkningen minskar under sen bronsålder och/eller äldre järnålder. Det är först under medeltidens början som man kan se en kolonisation och nyodling. Bakgrunden till denna bebyggelseutvidgning måste ses i ett socialt sammanhang. En möjlig förklaring till den medeltida expansionen är att området koloniserats genom en organiserad process ledd av kungens förvaltare på Tuna gård. Enligt denna tolkning ska kolonisationsprojektet ha baserats på att nybyggarna rekryterades bland frigivna trälar, legohjon, husmän och fattiga bondsöner. Det var människor som var vana vid hårt arbete och som behärskade grunderna i jordbrukets konst. Efter några
arrendefria år kunde de framgångsrika bilda familj och gå upp bland de fria landborna. Jordränta betalades till kronan.

Tuna gård hade under vissa perioder stor betydelse för utvecklingen i Misterhult, men hur Tuna blev en kungsgård kan vi bara spekulera kring. Man skulle hypotetiskt kunna tänka sig att övertagandet hänger samman med en i Mellansverige framväxande kungamakt som under tidig medeltid flyttar fram sina positioner mot det viktiga och politiskt omstridda Kalmarsundsområdet. Förutom Tuna gård ingick också husabyarna i Hossmo och Högsby i denna inledningsvis försiktiga etablering.

Misterhultområdets anknytning till ett större sammanhang framgår av kopplingen till Vimmerby. Via Tunaåsen som var en viktig färdväg redan under järnåldern, upprätthölls under medeltiden en kommersiell förbindelse mellan staden Vimmerby och dess hamnplats Figeholm. Därmed hade man en koppling till en av Nordeuropas viktigaste handelsleder, som följde utmed östkusten.

För att sammanfatta: i Tuna län fanns två saker som lockade medeltidens entreprenörer: mark att kolonisera och goda transportvägar till kommersiella centra där överskottet kunde omsättas. I Tuna län, Tjustgöla fäste undantaget, var det kungamakten som skulle exploatera resurserna och befrämja deras omsättning genom att ge Vimmerby med dess hamnplats Figeholm handelsprivilegier.

Open fields were a dominant agricultural feature in Central, Western and Northern Europe for nearly a millennium. The spatial organisation of villages and the degree of communal management of common resources varied, but the basic characteristics and common features of the open-field system were that individual holdings were fragmented into several small unfenced plots and intermingled in one or more fields. Research on the subject is extensive, and several explanations for its cause(s) have been presented; however, the answer regarding the question of its rationale and persistence over time is still up for debate.
The overarching aim of this article is to present new findings concerning open-field farming from a functional and practical perspective. What were the farming practices and how was the spatial organisation in open fields integrated in
those practices? This article shows that the common practice in Skaraborg County, Sweden, was diversification by using different crops. In the village of Kleva, the preparation of plots and the planting of different crops was carried out in a sequence. Sources indicate that the scattered plots in open fields were integrated into that sequence and that certain plots were designated for certain crops to be sown at a certain moment in time. In the village of Kleva, open fields were used to cater to precision farming as a way to manage time, work and space.

This article analyzes the development of the Green revolution in Costa Rica’s rice production. It shows the leading role played by changes in the biological capital (seeds) in the transformation of rice agriculture since the 1940s. The hypothesis is that the selection process of new genetic material (high-yielding varieties) was decisive for the consolidation of the technical package associated with the Green revolution as well as in strengthening capitalist forms of production. The research is based on agronomic document review, interviews, statistical series and agricultural periodicals.

Los campos comuneros son propiedades rurales de uso colectivo cuyo acceso es legi-timado a partir del parentesco entre sus pobladores. Se asume que sus orígenes son colo-niales y todavía hoy constituyen un tipo de propiedad ampliamente difundida en la región de estudio. Este artículo se propone explorar el surgimiento y el devenir de la propiedad indivisa hasta 1800, plantea una periodización del proceso e indaga en las prácticas de los comuneros a través del desarrollo de cinco ejemplos. PALABRAS CLAVE: Derechos de propiedad; Los Llanos de La Rioja; Campos comuneros. «Campos comuneros» (also called «mercedes») are collective properties based on kinship, that still continue to exist in Los Llanos region. The purpose of this article is to provide an interpretation of the emergence and fate of this kind of agrarian structure until the XIX Century and to propose a periodization of the process and an explanation of commoner s social practices.

... The Modagspace project: Lidar data and landscape archaeology in southern France (Languedoc). Nicolas Poirier ( Auteur correspondant. ) 1, 2, 3 , Rachel Opitz 1, 3 , Laure Nuninger ( Auteur correspondant. ) 1, 3, 4 , Krištof Oštir 2, 3. (06/04/2010). ...

Meend is a common place-name or toponym in and around the Forest of Dean. It is a name that is familiar to most people in the locality, and the majority of these could probably describe the principal characteristics of a meend. These could usually include an open character, uncultivated and accessible for informal recreational use. The word is often used in association with “forest waste”. These areas lay outside the forest plantation inclosures and were historically exploited by local communities for grazing and as a source of bracken, gorse and brushwood. These practices have declined over the last half century. Most meends that still exist have one or more of these attributes. However, many more have been lost over the years, and exist only as distant memories, have had their names corrupted or absorbed, or appear only as forgotten names on modern maps. This paper seeks to shed some light on the origins of what is possibly the most important group of place and field names in and
around the Forest of Dean and points to areas of research that would yield dividends in uncovering the social and environmental origins of the forest.

Tanks are technologies used to store water for irrigation in south India since ancient times. Scholars have been divided over the reasons for the decline of tanks. In the late eighteenth century, when the British colonial government took control of large parts of south India, tanks were in a decrepit state and unusable. Over two hundred years of colonial rule resulted in tanks diminishing in importance to agriculture, and many were replaced by canals and well irrigation. While some scholars have blamed ‘modern’ colonial policies of profit for the decline of tank systems, others have argued that tanks were neither managed perfectly nor egalitarian institutions during precolonial times. This article furthers this analysis and examines policies of tank maintenance in the specific context of an expanding nineteenth-century colonial economy, focused on producing ‘value’ and eliminating ‘waste’. The article shows how the colonial state, in the wake of a famine, undertook renewed efforts at maintaining tanks in the late nineteenth-century. However, tank maintenance intersected with expanding railways and large scale deforestation, which were cornerstones of the productive colonial economy. The article shows how tanks occupied an uncertain space within the ‘waste’ and ‘value’ dialectic, unsure of how maintenance policies and ecological changes produced them within these underlying conditions of the colonial economy.

The interpretation of the use and contextual meaning of fossil agrarian forms is connected with their age. In this article we discuss the dating and interpretation of a field wall in Öggestorp, situated on the northern rim of the southern Swedish uplands in the province of Småland. Öggestorp is a complex archaeological site dating from the early Iron Age (500 BC to AD 550). The site was also used for various forms of agriculture during the Middle Ages and in early modern times, a fact which complicates the
dating and the interpretation of the agrarian features. We discuss the possibility and practical issue of dating agrarian sediments by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). By combining OSL and other methods, a reliable estimation of age can be established. The paper also deals with the possible implications of the OSL-method in relation to the current state of knowledge of agrarian structures. We show that a serious dating of agricultural remains must be based upon a critically used combination of methods. Without a well-argued date, it is difficult to relate any agrarian form chronologically to other remains in a fossil landscape of multilayered complexity.

Draft of a review [in german] of

Günter Mahlerwein: Die Moderne (1880-2010), Grundzüge der Agrargeschichte - Band 3, Böhlau Verlag, Köln etc. 2016, 230 p.

Die Agrargeschichte galt und gilt als ein besonders konservatives Fach. Dies bildete sich in den 1990er Jahren z.B. in der 1952 gegründeten Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie (ZAA) ab. Als Kontrapunkt gegen die ZAA gründete sich 1994 der Arbeitskreis Agrargeschichte (AKA), als ein Zusammenschluss reformfreudiger WissenschaftlerInnen, der halbjährlich einen eigenen Newsletter herausbrachte. Die im AKA versammelten Akteure, darunter auch MuseumsmitarbeiterInnen, propagierten interdisziplinäre, moderne Ansätze, die z.B. an Bourdieu geschult sind, Geschlechterfragen thematisieren oder mediengeschichtlich argumentieren. Zehn Jahre später fand 2003 ein personelles Revirement in der Redaktion der ZAA statt, durch das Mitglieder des AKA die ZAA übernahmen und deren Modernisierung forcierten. 2012 wurden der AKA und der Herausgeberverein der ZAA fusioniert. Schon damals wurde ein neues Standardwerk zur Agrargeschichte geplant, mit vielen Vorschusslorbeeren kommuniziert. Nun ist es endlich in drei Bänden erschienen. Der Band zur Moderne enthält neun Kapitel, von denen die drei zu Boden, Kapital und Demografie relativ umfangreich sind, während die zu Arbeit, Agrarmarkt bzw. Agrarpolitik und Wissen dann weit kürzer sind. Die Spitze bilden die Kapitel " Globale Verflechtungen " und das zu " Ertragssteigerungen " , die ganze eineinhalb bzw. drei Seiten umfassen. Innerhalb der längeren Kapitel wird entlang der klassischen zeitlichen Wendepunkte unterteilt und so auch die Geschichte der DDR-Landwirtschaft mit berücksichtigt. Hier wird nun klar, dass es um deutsche Agrargeschichte geht und nicht " Agrargeschichte " oder die " Geschichte agrarischer Gesellschaften " in einer europäischen oder gar globalen Perspektive oder einem Ansatz, der transnational vergleichend arbeitet. Den Hauptteil des Textkorpus bildet im Gegenteil die Aufzählung von Zahlen und Statistiken, was die Lesefreude sehr schnell bremst und bald einfach nur ermüdend ist. Von neueren Ansätzen, wie es sie durchaus gibt, und wie sie im AKA, dem der Autor Mahlerwein auch angehört, diskutiert werden, ist jenseits des Kapitels zu landwirtschaftlichem " Wissen " und den Passagen zur Definition ländlicher Räume (am Schluss des Buches!) sehr wenig zu spüren.

The aim of the article consists in the research of transformations of ethnic identity in descendants of Belarusian peasantsmigrants
of Siberia and the Far East. The source basis of the research includes field data collected by the author in ethnographic expeditions
on the territory of 12 regions of Siberia and the Far East during the period from 2009 to 2017, the national structure of the
explored regions reflected in population censuses from 1897 to 2010 and also publications about local history of different years. Results
of the research indicate that at the time of mass agrarian migrations of the second half of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th
centuries the ethnic identity of most Belarusians was not created yet. Due to the internal nature of migrations, peasants identified
their homeland with Russia. Their identity had regional rather than ethnic differentiation. In Siberia Belarusian migrants began to live
near the Russian old resident population and received a new social and cultural status which found reflection in the wide use of the
name “samokhod” (lit. “self-movers”). After the establishment of the Soviet power, administrative and political factors initiated the
process of belarusization. Results of the All-Union population census of 1926 showed that most migrants already identified themselves
with Belarusians. In the 1930s–1940s the socio-political and economic factors of collectivization and industrialization as well
as the consequences of World War II led to serious demographic changes in places of compact accommodation of Belarusian peasants-
migrants. As a result of urbanization and modernization of the way of life of the Soviet village in the second half of the 20th
century, most descendants of Belarusian peasants-migrants began to identify themselves with Russians or just did not think about
their ethnic origin. Since the 1990s, the author observes a growth of interest of professional researchers and amateur enthusiasts in
the history and traditional culture of Belarusian peasants-migrants as in historical and cultural heritage. On this background, the Belarusian
ethnic identity begins to develop again among people who are interested in traditions of their ancestors. Today, mediated information
dominates in its formation rather than intergenerational historical memory. The author comes to a conclusion that during
different periods of time a number of demographic, political, social and cultural factors had impact on features of ethnic identity of
descendants of Belarusian peasants-migrants. Therefore, today it is considered more suitable to use the concept “descendants of Belarusian
peasants-migrants” rather than the ethnonym “Belarusian” when referring to offsprings of people who moved from Belarus to
Siberia and the Far East in the second half of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th centuries.

Two historical landscape analysis, based on written documents and land survey maps from the 18th and the first half of the 19th century, have been carried out as part of the project running the archaeological investigations for the development of the highway E22 past the community Linderöd on the ridge Linderödsåsen. The mostly wooded landscape on the ridge is a sharp contrast to the fertile plains of Scania. The first study covers the entire parish of Linderöd, with special regards to the villages Knopparp and Spångarp. The second is a detailed study of settlement, cooperation and land use in Knopparp. The studied period extends from the medieval colonisation in the 12th and 13th century until the enclosure reform (Sw. laga skifte) in the mid-19th century. However, the medieval settlers were not the first to practice agriculture in the neighbourhood as they could benefit from stone clearings made already during the first four centuries AD. During the Late Iron Age and the Viking period settlement was rather sparse on the ridge, which was dominated by large uninhabited areas used as commons (Sw. allmänning). With support of some evidence it is suggested that the medieval colonisation was managed by stewards (Sw. brytar). The landscape analysis are published as appendices in separate reports from the Archaeologists at the National Historical Museums (2015:98 and 2018:105).

Este artículo tiene como objetivo propiciar un nuevo diálogo entre la cuestión agraria “desarrollista” y los nuevos contenidos de una cuestión agraria en Costa Rica, delimitada no solamente alrededor de la tierra como “recurso productivo”, sino además en torno a nuevas dinámicas territoriales y valoraciones ambientales de los bosques. En ese diálogo se consideran tres conjuntos de procesos históricos: primero, la cuestión agraria desarrollista, la importancia de los productos tradicionales, los granos básicos, así como la expansión del pastizal y la formación de los asentamientos del Instituto de Tierras y Colonización (ITCO) . Segundo, los nuevos patrones de producción y uso del suelo asociados con la expansión de la “agricultura de cambio”, la crisis de la agricultura para consumo interno y la consolidación de los Productos No Tradicionales (PNTs) en el esquema exportador. Y tercero, la nueva cuestión agraria en Costa Rica: la expansión del bosque como el nuevo espacio de concentración de tierras y el desarrollo de los Programas de Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PPSA), así como el dominio territorial del monocultivo para la exportación. Todo lo anterior, en el contexto de un sector agropecuario que ha perdido relevancia en la estructura económica nacional, en comparación con actividades como el turismo y los servicios en general.

O malogro da política de terras do Im-pério talvez seja uma das ponderações mais repetidas na historiografia que, di-reta ou indiretamente, discutiu a Lei n o 601 de 18 de setembro de 1850, a "Lei de Terras". Contudo, considero que o pos-tulado do fracasso da legislação não dá conta de captar profundamente a com-plexidade da situação que foi legislada com base nos critérios dessa lei. Além de lhe dar um caráter absoluto, tal ponto de vista retira a dinamicidade do processo social e exige que o cumprimento de de-terminada legislação seja fiel àquilo que está expresso em seu texto. Neste artigo, portanto, partirei do princípio de que a Lei de Terras de 1850 "pegou", mas o fez de acordo com a lógica, o contexto, a realidade social e histórica que caracteri-zou a época e a nação em que foi formu-lada e aplicada. Palavras-chave: lei; terra; política agrá-ria. Abstract

Capitalismo: tierra y poder en América Latina (1982-2012) reúne un balance sobre la situación del agro en 17 países latinoamericanos, con ello se busca continuar el magno esfuerzo realizado hace tres décadas por Pablo González Casanova con su historia de los movimientos campesinos y, al mismo tiempo, se intenta reflejar los efectos del proceso de mundialización exacerbado y dirigido por el capital financiero internacional que arrolla al agro mundial desde hace más de 30 años. América Latina abarca regiones diferentes que poseen orografía, recursos hídricos y sistemas climáticos y son fruto de una construcción histórica del territorio que varía mucho. Por lo tanto, para facilitar el cotejo entre los diversos casos, consideramos esas diferencias al organizar los tres volúmenes que integran esta colección. A eso responde la agrupación en regiones vastas (el Cono Sur, el Arco Andino, Mesoamérica) de países que, grosso modo, tienen algunas características similares, a pesar de sus difere...

Since the mid-2000s, India has been beset by widespread farmer protests against land dispossession. Dispossession Without Development demonstrates that beneath these conflicts lay a profound shift in regimes of dispossession. While the postcolonial Indian state dispossessed land mostly for public-sector industry and infrastructure, since the 1990s state governments have become land brokers for private real estate capital. Using the case of a village in Rajasthan that was dispossessed for a private Special Economic Zone, the book ethnographically illustrates the exclusionary trajectory of capitalism driving dispossession in contemporary India. Taking us into the lives of diverse villagers in "Rajpura," the book meticulously documents the destruction of agricultural livelihoods, the marginalization of rural labor, the spatial uneveness of infrastructure provision, and the dramatic consequences of real estate speculation for social inequality and village politics. Illuminating the structural underpinnings of land struggles in contemporary India, this book will resonate in any place where "land grabs" have fueled conflict in recent years.

Me ocuparé primero de la realidad del campesinado en cuanto tipo socieconómico. {...} En segundo lugar, abordaré el tema de la organización política del campesinado {...} Por último me referiré a los aspectos culturales e ideológicos de la sociedad campesina, de nuevo, los temas en disputa se refieren a su autonomía o dependencia y a los componentes de conservadurismo o innovación, coherencia o fragmentariedad presentes en los valores campesinos.

The aim of this paper is to show the evolution of Spanish wheat output in the last decades of XK century. The paper evaluates both
the advances in statistical methods achieved by provincial agricultural scientists in the 80's, and the statistic consumption data published by the Ministry of Public Works in 1868. The main conclusión is that consumption and output of wheat between
1868 and 1890 were similar to those obtained for the period 1890-1896. This suggest that the Spanish and Italian cereal sectors behaved quite alike. The paper also proves that the tariff aproved by Cánovas had a powerful effect on the wheat pattern of consumption of the Spanish peasantry.

This article examines the struggle for land tenancy reform and the assassination of Farmers' Federation of Thailand (FFT) leaders in northern Thailand during the period of democratic politics between 14 October 1973 and 6 October 1976 as unresolved, ambiguous, and linked events in the recent Thai past. During the 1973-1976 period, farmers became new political and legal subjects as they fought to pass and then implement the 1974 Land Rent Control Act. Drawing on provincial archival records, the author contextualizes how and why tenancy became a contentious issue between farmers and landlords beginning in the 1950s and then examines the anxious and violent backlash with which their organizing in the 1970s was met by state, para-state, right-wing, and landholding elites. The author interrogates the conditions and effects of the assassinations by writing about the life and death of one of the leaders of the FFT, Intha Sribunruang. The denials by a range of state officials of the political nature of Intha and other FFT leaders' murders underscore both the importance of the FFT's work and the necessity to critically evaluate the assassinations. The author concludes by arguing that the lack of resolution surrounding the struggle for tenancy reform and the assassinations of FFT leaders continues to resonate in present-day politics. An Appendix to the article offers the first English-language list of the FFT leaders known to have been killed or victimized by violence between 1974 and 1979.

The Countryside under the Collectivisation Knout: the Circumstances of an Exemplary “Kulak” Trial.
The study is concerned with the status of private farmers in the period of collectivisation of Czech agriculture in fifties of 20th century. This decade had fatal consequences and at the same time we can say still has the basic upshot. In the period of ten years the number of private farmers was considerably reduced. The process of collectivization is monitored from regional point of view, in small village Svatojansky Ujezd situated in former district of Nova Paka.
The private farmers, by communist propaganda disparagingly called “the village rich” or “kulaks”, were systematically restricted and persecuted. It happened so under the ideological slogan about “sharpening class struggle”. In this way were prevented from hiring labour, had their savings and machinery confiscated and were subjected to a number of other measures forcing them into decline. They were obligated to deliver a large amount of produce. No fulfilment of delivery represented fines, confiscations or even jail. Among the most drastic measures were those taken not only against convicted farmers but also against their spouses, elderly parents, children and other relatives. These included the cancelling of rations, bans from education at chosen schools, confiscation of property. Such measures are described in this study on an example of agrarian families of Josef Novotny and Josef Machytka and their exemplary political trial.
Author describes by which way the state-wide directed agricultural policy was shown into the living on Hradec Kralove countryside with the focus on Svatojansky Ujezd and its close neighbourhood. Through the fates of local farmers reveals the operating and the consequents the policy of repression, which involved methods of economic discrimination, intentional administrative obstruction, denunciations as so as judicial and police repression. Through regional histories author points out the characteristic features of the communist forced and violent collectivization of Czech agriculture. Ultimately consequently hindered economic development in the agricultural socialistic sector and seriously disrupted social relations inside village communities. The presented study gathers exclusively of previously unpublished archive records, reminiscence of eyewitnesses (oral history), penal file of then district court and rarely preserved correspondence between prosecutors.

For a long time, the expulsion of the Moriscos was seen as one of the main causes of the Valencian industrialization delay. The work reviews this thesis that was based on the analysis of the economic transformations that suffered the places repopulated. Given that the Moriscos were a numerical minority and socially marginal (s. XVI), the consequences of expulsion are addressed in a Old Christians town. Alcoi was a property of the Crown which provided many men to the repopulation process and was considerably affected by it, without, therefore, this would affect subsequent process of industrialization. On the contrary, the analysis of demographic, political, agricultural and industrial variables (paying particular attention to the reconstruction of series of indicators) short (1600-1620) and long term (1500-1700) show that the expulsion of the Moriscos represented an essential stimulus in the tested process.

In the important collection of essays entitled Irish Peasants; violence and political unrest, Samuel Clarke noted in his epilogue that there was an Unreaped Harvest in the scholarship on agrarian conflict in Ireland.

Since being published over two decades ago, much of what Clarke singled out for further scrutiny has been addressed. That is, with the notable exception of Ulster.

Although the histiography is dominated by the narrative of communal strife, agrarian conflict in the northern province is no less worthy of study. This is especially true when it appears to have been the case that much of the agrarian outrage in Ulster was not as driven by sectarian motives as might be expected.

Thus, this paper focusses on the one of the few outbreaks of agrarian disturbances in Ulster, those of the years 1849-1852.

This is the summary volume in English of a work in Swedish: five volumes and c. 2,100 pages, many color photos. Also the Swedish "Det svenska jordbrukets historia" are free downloadable online: the website of Kungl. Agriculture and Forestry Academy. I was the editor of the Swdidhs Project, but in the English i worked together with Mats.

El avance de los reinos cristianos sobre al- Ándalus significó la inserción en los esquemas políticos, sociales y económicos feudales de nuevos territorios que albergaban medioambientes diversos. Este proceso supuso la alteración de los elementos que componían el paisaje andalusí y su conversión a los que definieron desde aquel entonces el cristiano feudal. En este artículo, se pretende abordar las transformaciones que tales sucesos supusieron sobre el área que quedó encuadrada bajo la villa, luego lugar, de Guardamar durante el periodo bajomedieval, atendiendo a algunos de los componentes de su paisaje rural y agrario, tales como el agua, la tierra y los lugares de residencia.

The setting and collection of taxation (contributions) from the taxable Czech population stabilised definitively in 1684, when the militare ordinarium gradually assumed key importance. From 1704 this setting (repartition) of contributions was carried out within what were called military years, corresponding to the last two months of the preceding year and 10 months of the following year. The state wished to maintain an overview of the setting of contributions, so in 1714 and 1725 it initiated the establishment of so-called contributions books.The change came with a system patent dated 6 September 1748. It was issued in connection with the introduction of a new lands register and with it a so-called 10-year recess. The system patent of 1748 introduced a whole range of norms during the second half of the 18th century. The most significant changes stemmed from the taxation and urbarial reforms of Joseph II, which however were in place only briefly, until the turn of 1789 and 1790. Orders dating from 1807 represented the final intervention in contributions accounting.

Vreta Abbey is the oldest known convent in Sweden, founded already at the beginning of the
12th century. This paper deals with the landed property donated to the convent from approximately
1100–1170. These gifts came from the royal family and the aristocracy. The greater part
of the landed property was situated in the vicinity of Vreta, in the fertile plains of the province
of Östergötland, cultivated since prehistoric times. Except for some distant possessions in the
province of Småland, the taxation of land was based on an estimated value called attung (Lat.
octonarius), corresponding to the continental mansus, indicating some kind of family farm. However,
during the examined period the aristocracy organized their landed estates in a system
of large farms managed by stewards (Sw. brytar), commanding a labor force mostly consisting
of slaves (Sw. trälar). As indicated by archaeology, some of the slaves had their own homestead
where they could raise a family. They were however the personal property of their owners and
tied to a large farm where they probably were given the responsibility of an entire season’s cultivation
of a given plot of land. The subdivisions (Sw. bol) of the possessions in Småland seem
to indicate such an arrangement. It is therefore argued that the landed property belonging to
Vreta Abbey before AD 1170 was not organized in tenant holdings (Sw. landbogårdar); instead
it was the task of the steward to split the harvest according to the attung-numbers and deliver
to the convent its rightful part. The manorial system constituted by the division of an estate into
a demesne and tenant holdings was not established in Sweden until the 13th century. This development
was accompanied by the growth of exchange and commerce, the liberation of slaves,
and extensive land clearance.

El estudio de la relación sociedad-naturaleza en el noroeste de México es un tema que se ha

abordado de manera marginal. Éste hecho resulta preocupante ya que en dicha región se

presenta conflictos ambientales que son consecuencia de una planeación urbana carente de

visión sustentable y se agrava debido a la migración, fruto de la frontera con Estados

Unidos. La vecindad con este país supone compartir ecosistemas y recursos naturales, por

lo que las actividades de ambos lados del muro están relacionadas directamente.

Historiográficamente el trabajo se clasifica dentro de la historia económico-

ambiental, ya que se basa en el impacto ambiental que supuso el cambio del sector

agropecuario al industrial en la ciudad de Tijuana, Baja California. Se elige esta urbe como

sujeto de estudio -además de ser la más importante de la región- por ser uno de los

ejemplos más claros de la modificación de una localidad con bases agrícolas a una

metrópoli predominantemente industrial. El trabajo se sustenta en el cambio de uso de suelo

de uso primario a secundario y terciario.

La coyuntura se encuentra a mediados de siglo XX con los programas de

industrialización del país y específicamente en la integración económica de la frontera norte

de México. Este proceso se reflejó en la expropiación de ejidos y propiedades dedicadas a

la agricultura y ganadería.

Una de las consecuencias del establecimiento del sector maquilador (cambio

agropecuario-industrial) es la transformación del paisaje rural debido al crecimiento de la

mancha urbana. Dicho proceso se dio en tres etapas: 1) La conversión del desierto en

distrito de riego, la  2) convivencia entre el sector rural y la emergente industria

maquiladora, 3) La expropiación de terrenos agrícolas que dieron paso a la expansión de la

urbe e industria. Estos hechos generaron contaminación de agua, aire y suelo, así como

enfermedades relacionadas con la actividad maquiladora y una evidente disminución del

medio ambiente primigenio.

En conclusión, en esta tesis se aborda la relación entre el sector campesino y el

medio ambiente, analizar la transición rural a urbana de Tijuana y cómo este proceso

histórico impactó al ecosistema. Por último se buscará plantear una crítica la

industrialización capitalista desde la historia ambiental.