The present volume is devoted to the tombs of Senbi II (B3) and Wekhhotep II (B4), and it forms t... more The present volume is devoted to the tombs of Senbi II (B3) and Wekhhotep II (B4), and it forms the final volume in the Australian Centre for Egyptology’s series of reports on the cemetery of Meir. With the publication of these two tombs, all of the major rock-cut tombs from the late Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom at Meir will have been recorded. The purpose of the ACE’s work at Meir was to achieve a new and complete record of the tombs at the site, including a detailed record of all architectural features, complete sets of colour photographs and line drawings of all scenes and inscriptions, and descriptive texts and analyses.
The tombs of Senbi II and Wekhhotep II are located in Section B of the cemetery, which is the main site of the Middle Kingdom tombs at Meir. Senbi II owns the largest yet most incomplete tomb at Meir, and it is clear that preparation of the tomb came to a sudden halt. The only decoration consists of two false doors, one belonging to Senbi II and the other to his wife Mersi III.
The tomb of Wekhhotep II is the last and southernmost of the tombs cut in Section B. It is relatively small considering the status of its owner, but its design, with the steps leading to the shrine, gives it an appearance of grandeur. The decoration is mostly achieved in plaster and painting, though it has suffered significant damage as a result of the destruction of most of the roof and the upper parts of the east, south and north walls of the outer room. What remains, however, demonstrates that the decoration was originally of a very high standard.
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This book conducts a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. The analysis highlights the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and establishes a more precise understanding of the role of funerary models in the tomb and their relationship to wall scenes.
The tomb of Wekhhotep III (C1) is the last decorated tomb to be excavated in the cemetery of Meir... more The tomb of Wekhhotep III (C1) is the last decorated tomb to be excavated in the cemetery of Meir, with a probable date of the Twelfth Dynasty reign of Senwosret II and/or Senwosret III. It has recently been re-excavated and re-recorded by the Australian Centre for Egyptology. The present volume provides a comprehensive record of the tomb’s architectural features and wall scenes, a complete set of colour photographs and detailed line drawings of all of its scenes and inscriptions, as well as a translation and analysis of those inscriptions. The tomb contains a number of unusual features, which include an exceptionally high number of women depicted with the tomb owner, the exclusive representation of women undertaking all activities within the chapel, Wekhhotep’s adoption of several royal prerogatives, and an absence of shafts and burial chambers in the immediate vicinity of the tomb. Wekhhotep III did not produce a male heir and the evidence suggests that the rule of his family came to an end with him. His tomb, therefore, provides important insights into the end of the power of nomarchic families during the mid-late Twelfth Dynasty.
During the late 6th Dynasty, serving sculptures underwent several
significant developments in pro... more During the late 6th Dynasty, serving sculptures underwent several significant developments in production and distribution, including a change in where they were located in the tomb. Previously housed in the serdab in the superstructure, the sculptures began to be deposited in the subterranean burial chamber. Previous explanations for this change in funerary practice have focused on religious reasons, specifically the growth of the Osirian cult which caused greater attention to be devoted to the substructure. However, it is equally important to investigate the historical factors that may have influenced this development. As these have not yet been fully considered, this study presents the historical perspective which should be understood alongside the religious explanations. It is argued that an increased feeling of insecurity in society contributed to the burial chamber becoming the preferred location for serving sculptures. This subterranean location enabled the sculptures to no longer have any interaction with the living and to give the tomb owner direct and more secure access to the goods and services they provided.
Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 2023
The tomb owner’s figure dominates scenes displayed on elite tomb-chapel walls, forming an essenti... more The tomb owner’s figure dominates scenes displayed on elite tomb-chapel walls, forming an essential part of the medium’s repertoire. Yet among funerary models, the tomb owner rarely appears. While the two artistic media exhibit many similarities in design, their representation of the tomb owner forms one of several distinguishing features that are rarely acknowledged. This paper examines the presence and absence of the tomb owner in wall scenes and funerary models from the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. It is here proposed that this difference in representation can be explained by the two artistic media’s contrasting technical properties and location in the tomb.
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2020
The exclusion of animate beings from the scenes displayed on the walls of Old Kingdom burial cham... more The exclusion of animate beings from the scenes displayed on the walls of Old Kingdom burial chambers has long been understood as a means to protect the deceased from any potential harm the figures might pose. Funerary models likewise depict people and animals from everyday life, yet they were included in burial chambers for a more expansive time period. This paper raises this apparent contradiction and conducts a comparative analysis of the two artistic media in order to highlight the unique properties and role of the funerary model. It is here proposed that during a time of instability, the model offered a more practical safeguard for the tomb owner’s eternal sustenance and so it became the preferred mode of representation for the burial chamber.
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2019
The three-dimensional funerary models housed in burial chambers of the late Old Kingdom to the en... more The three-dimensional funerary models housed in burial chambers of the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom display a number of similarities with the so-called scenes of daily life on tomb-chapel walls. A comparison of the two media can help to classify otherwise unidentifiable artworks. One such model, housed in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon, displays many parallels with scenes depicting the theme of the rendering of accounts. This article examines these similarities in order to determine if the model should rightly be understood as a representation of this theme.
American Research Center in Egypt, Orange County Chapter, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
American Research Center in Egypt, Northern California Chapter, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
American Research Center in Egypt, Northwest Chapter, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
Keynote lecture at the Robert and Frances Fullerton Museum of Art, California State University, San Bernardino, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. Funerary models consist of small three-dimensional sculptures typically fashioned of wood, whereas wall scenes comprise two-dimensional representations painted and/or carved in relief on tomb walls. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
Annual Meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2022
Although the military served an important role in ancient Egyptian society, very few military rep... more Although the military served an important role in ancient Egyptian society, very few military representations are known from private tombs. Schulman has identified eight provincial examples of military wall scenes from the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom, while Kroenke has identified six provenanced military funerary models from the same periods. The theme remains rare among both media and should be considered a supplementary addition for the ruling elite who desired to highlight their personal military success. The fact that the military is even included among the repertoire of funerary models is quite surprising. The sculptures were interred in the burial chamber where every effort was made to protect the body of the tomb owner. Animate beings were largely excluded from scenes on the walls of substructures in order to protect the deceased from any threat they might pose. Including representations of armed soldiers had the potential to cause harm. This paper will examine the known examples of military funerary models and will compare them with the wall scenes. Focusing primarily on the representations from Middle Egypt, it will identify the differences between the two media and propose why the theme would be included among the repertoires of funerary models and wall scenes. This will highlight the historical importance of the artistic representations and will provide new insight into how a period of political instability affected funerary customs of the provincial elite.
The recent redocumentation of the 12th Dynasty tomb of Wekhhotep III at Meir by the Australian Ce... more The recent redocumentation of the 12th Dynasty tomb of Wekhhotep III at Meir by the Australian Centre for Egyptology has uncovered new details of a fragmentary scene on the chapel’s east wall, which can now most likely be classified as a representation of the hippopotamus hunt. This theme is quite frequently attested in Old Kingdom private tombs, but the activity is exclusively conducted by attendants. In the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom, the theme rarely appears, but the hunt is, for the first time, undertaken by the tomb owner himself. The active participation of the tomb owner in activities traditionally performed by attendants is characteristic of the Middle Kingdom. In addition to the hippopotamus hunt, he is shown as the primary actor in scenes of the desert hunt and fowling with a clap net. This paper will examine the known representations of the tomb owner undertaking the hippopotamus hunt from the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom and will compare them with earlier examples from private and royal contexts. It will consider the similarities and differences between the representations in order to identify possible influences in scene design. Such traditionally neglected developments in artistic repertoire are essential for our understanding of the growing power of the provincial elite. This paper will, therefore, consider the historical importance of these artistic changes and the reasons for tomb owners adopting a more active role in the scenes displayed on the walls of their tombs during the Middle Kingdom.
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal forms of r... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal forms of representation in the elite tomb: wall scenes and funerary models. The two artistic media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in everyday life activities. This has caused scholars to label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are a number of notable differences that are yet to be acknowledged. My PhD research comprised a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media in order to more precisely understand the role of the funerary model in the tomb and its relationship to the wall scene. In today’s paper, I will outline the similarities and differences between funerary models and wall scenes in their representation of bread-making, offering-bearers, and cattle in procession. These three themes showcase some of the distinguishing characteristics of funerary models and will consequently demonstrate why the three-dimensional medium should not be understood as duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, but rather a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived for its role in provisioning the deceased for eternity.
The tomb owner certainly held a prominent position in the decorative scheme of the tomb-chapel, h... more The tomb owner certainly held a prominent position in the decorative scheme of the tomb-chapel, highlighting his importance as the key recipient of the mortuary cult. His figure dominates the wall scenes, being portrayed at a grand scale either watching over the various tasks of his estate or directly engaged in certain activities. In this space, the wealth, status and achievements of the tomb owner were on public display. Decoration also extended to the burial chamber, and in the late Old and Middle Kingdoms this comprised three-dimensional funerary models. These artworks have long been described by scholars as ‘duplicates’ or ‘substitutes’ of the wall scenes, but there are several notable differences between the designs that have yet to be acknowledged. Of particular significance is the fact that the tomb owner is rarely represented in the three-dimensional medium. This paper proposes reasons as to why this difference in representation occurred by examining the themes in which the tomb owner’s figure appears as well as the contrasting locations and technical properties of each medium. This striking difference between the two- and three-dimensional media highlights the need to re-assess the relationship between the two types of artwork. It is here proposed that the funerary model maintained a unique repertoire that was designed according to its specific purpose within the tomb.
New Perspectives on Ritual Landscapes in Ancient Egypt: Challenges and Opportunities, Macquarie University, 2019
The image in ancient Egypt served a ritual function in provisioning the deceased for the afterlif... more The image in ancient Egypt served a ritual function in provisioning the deceased for the afterlife. During the late Old and Middle Kingdoms, both funerary models and wall scenes were included in tombs to serve this purpose. The two artistic media display many similarities in design and so the models are regularly labelled by scholars as duplicates of the scenes. However, there are several significant differences that are yet to be acknowledged. Through a case study of the granary, this paper challenges our understanding of the relationship between the two media and highlights some of the unique features of the three-dimensional medium.
Annual Meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2019
The ancient Egyptians believed that objects and people depicted in funerary artistic representati... more The ancient Egyptians believed that objects and people depicted in funerary artistic representations would magically come into existence and provide for the tomb owner in the afterlife. The absence of animate decoration in the burial chamber, therefore, has long been understood as a means to protect the deceased from any potential harm posed by living creatures. Animate figures first appeared in the wall scenes of substructures during late Dynasty 5, but were quickly replaced by portrayals of food and drink. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom and in the First Intermediate Period, some hieroglyphic signs of humans and animals were even truncated or eliminated. Funerary models, conversely, were included in burial chambers for a more expansive time period, from late Dynasty 6 to the end of the Middle Kingdom, even though they too depicted people from everyday life. If it was believed that these statuettes would likewise come to life and serve the deceased for eternity, why would they be included in the substructure alongside the body for a considerably longer period than animate wall scenes? This paper explores the apparent contradiction by presenting the differing developments and surrounding ideology of each medium. Various proposals are suggested, with the themes represented by the artworks, the role of accompanying text, and recently discovered scenes in the burial chambers of Baqet I and Baqet II at Beni Hassan all being addressed.
The present volume is devoted to the tombs of Senbi II (B3) and Wekhhotep II (B4), and it forms t... more The present volume is devoted to the tombs of Senbi II (B3) and Wekhhotep II (B4), and it forms the final volume in the Australian Centre for Egyptology’s series of reports on the cemetery of Meir. With the publication of these two tombs, all of the major rock-cut tombs from the late Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom at Meir will have been recorded. The purpose of the ACE’s work at Meir was to achieve a new and complete record of the tombs at the site, including a detailed record of all architectural features, complete sets of colour photographs and line drawings of all scenes and inscriptions, and descriptive texts and analyses.
The tombs of Senbi II and Wekhhotep II are located in Section B of the cemetery, which is the main site of the Middle Kingdom tombs at Meir. Senbi II owns the largest yet most incomplete tomb at Meir, and it is clear that preparation of the tomb came to a sudden halt. The only decoration consists of two false doors, one belonging to Senbi II and the other to his wife Mersi III.
The tomb of Wekhhotep II is the last and southernmost of the tombs cut in Section B. It is relatively small considering the status of its owner, but its design, with the steps leading to the shrine, gives it an appearance of grandeur. The decoration is mostly achieved in plaster and painting, though it has suffered significant damage as a result of the destruction of most of the roof and the upper parts of the east, south and north walls of the outer room. What remains, however, demonstrates that the decoration was originally of a very high standard.
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This book conducts a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. The analysis highlights the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and establishes a more precise understanding of the role of funerary models in the tomb and their relationship to wall scenes.
The tomb of Wekhhotep III (C1) is the last decorated tomb to be excavated in the cemetery of Meir... more The tomb of Wekhhotep III (C1) is the last decorated tomb to be excavated in the cemetery of Meir, with a probable date of the Twelfth Dynasty reign of Senwosret II and/or Senwosret III. It has recently been re-excavated and re-recorded by the Australian Centre for Egyptology. The present volume provides a comprehensive record of the tomb’s architectural features and wall scenes, a complete set of colour photographs and detailed line drawings of all of its scenes and inscriptions, as well as a translation and analysis of those inscriptions. The tomb contains a number of unusual features, which include an exceptionally high number of women depicted with the tomb owner, the exclusive representation of women undertaking all activities within the chapel, Wekhhotep’s adoption of several royal prerogatives, and an absence of shafts and burial chambers in the immediate vicinity of the tomb. Wekhhotep III did not produce a male heir and the evidence suggests that the rule of his family came to an end with him. His tomb, therefore, provides important insights into the end of the power of nomarchic families during the mid-late Twelfth Dynasty.
During the late 6th Dynasty, serving sculptures underwent several
significant developments in pro... more During the late 6th Dynasty, serving sculptures underwent several significant developments in production and distribution, including a change in where they were located in the tomb. Previously housed in the serdab in the superstructure, the sculptures began to be deposited in the subterranean burial chamber. Previous explanations for this change in funerary practice have focused on religious reasons, specifically the growth of the Osirian cult which caused greater attention to be devoted to the substructure. However, it is equally important to investigate the historical factors that may have influenced this development. As these have not yet been fully considered, this study presents the historical perspective which should be understood alongside the religious explanations. It is argued that an increased feeling of insecurity in society contributed to the burial chamber becoming the preferred location for serving sculptures. This subterranean location enabled the sculptures to no longer have any interaction with the living and to give the tomb owner direct and more secure access to the goods and services they provided.
Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 2023
The tomb owner’s figure dominates scenes displayed on elite tomb-chapel walls, forming an essenti... more The tomb owner’s figure dominates scenes displayed on elite tomb-chapel walls, forming an essential part of the medium’s repertoire. Yet among funerary models, the tomb owner rarely appears. While the two artistic media exhibit many similarities in design, their representation of the tomb owner forms one of several distinguishing features that are rarely acknowledged. This paper examines the presence and absence of the tomb owner in wall scenes and funerary models from the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. It is here proposed that this difference in representation can be explained by the two artistic media’s contrasting technical properties and location in the tomb.
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2020
The exclusion of animate beings from the scenes displayed on the walls of Old Kingdom burial cham... more The exclusion of animate beings from the scenes displayed on the walls of Old Kingdom burial chambers has long been understood as a means to protect the deceased from any potential harm the figures might pose. Funerary models likewise depict people and animals from everyday life, yet they were included in burial chambers for a more expansive time period. This paper raises this apparent contradiction and conducts a comparative analysis of the two artistic media in order to highlight the unique properties and role of the funerary model. It is here proposed that during a time of instability, the model offered a more practical safeguard for the tomb owner’s eternal sustenance and so it became the preferred mode of representation for the burial chamber.
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2019
The three-dimensional funerary models housed in burial chambers of the late Old Kingdom to the en... more The three-dimensional funerary models housed in burial chambers of the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom display a number of similarities with the so-called scenes of daily life on tomb-chapel walls. A comparison of the two media can help to classify otherwise unidentifiable artworks. One such model, housed in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon, displays many parallels with scenes depicting the theme of the rendering of accounts. This article examines these similarities in order to determine if the model should rightly be understood as a representation of this theme.
American Research Center in Egypt, Orange County Chapter, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
American Research Center in Egypt, Northern California Chapter, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
American Research Center in Egypt, Northwest Chapter, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
Keynote lecture at the Robert and Frances Fullerton Museum of Art, California State University, San Bernardino, 2023
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of a... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal types of artistic representation in the ancient Egyptian elite tomb: funerary models and wall scenes. Funerary models consist of small three-dimensional sculptures typically fashioned of wood, whereas wall scenes comprise two-dimensional representations painted and/or carved in relief on tomb walls. The two media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in activities of everyday life. This has caused scholars to regularly label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are several notable differences yet to be acknowledged. This lecture presents the results of a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media, focusing on representations from the sites of Meir, Deir el-Bersha and Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. It will highlight the distinguishing characteristics of each medium and propose that funerary models should be understood as a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived to provision the deceased for eternity.
Annual Meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2022
Although the military served an important role in ancient Egyptian society, very few military rep... more Although the military served an important role in ancient Egyptian society, very few military representations are known from private tombs. Schulman has identified eight provincial examples of military wall scenes from the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom, while Kroenke has identified six provenanced military funerary models from the same periods. The theme remains rare among both media and should be considered a supplementary addition for the ruling elite who desired to highlight their personal military success. The fact that the military is even included among the repertoire of funerary models is quite surprising. The sculptures were interred in the burial chamber where every effort was made to protect the body of the tomb owner. Animate beings were largely excluded from scenes on the walls of substructures in order to protect the deceased from any threat they might pose. Including representations of armed soldiers had the potential to cause harm. This paper will examine the known examples of military funerary models and will compare them with the wall scenes. Focusing primarily on the representations from Middle Egypt, it will identify the differences between the two media and propose why the theme would be included among the repertoires of funerary models and wall scenes. This will highlight the historical importance of the artistic representations and will provide new insight into how a period of political instability affected funerary customs of the provincial elite.
The recent redocumentation of the 12th Dynasty tomb of Wekhhotep III at Meir by the Australian Ce... more The recent redocumentation of the 12th Dynasty tomb of Wekhhotep III at Meir by the Australian Centre for Egyptology has uncovered new details of a fragmentary scene on the chapel’s east wall, which can now most likely be classified as a representation of the hippopotamus hunt. This theme is quite frequently attested in Old Kingdom private tombs, but the activity is exclusively conducted by attendants. In the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom, the theme rarely appears, but the hunt is, for the first time, undertaken by the tomb owner himself. The active participation of the tomb owner in activities traditionally performed by attendants is characteristic of the Middle Kingdom. In addition to the hippopotamus hunt, he is shown as the primary actor in scenes of the desert hunt and fowling with a clap net. This paper will examine the known representations of the tomb owner undertaking the hippopotamus hunt from the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom and will compare them with earlier examples from private and royal contexts. It will consider the similarities and differences between the representations in order to identify possible influences in scene design. Such traditionally neglected developments in artistic repertoire are essential for our understanding of the growing power of the provincial elite. This paper will, therefore, consider the historical importance of these artistic changes and the reasons for tomb owners adopting a more active role in the scenes displayed on the walls of their tombs during the Middle Kingdom.
During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal forms of r... more During the late Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom, there were two principal forms of representation in the elite tomb: wall scenes and funerary models. The two artistic media exhibit several similarities in design, with both depicting people and animals engaged in everyday life activities. This has caused scholars to label funerary models duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, implying that they served the same purpose in the tomb. However, there are a number of notable differences that are yet to be acknowledged. My PhD research comprised a detailed comparative analysis of the two artistic media in order to more precisely understand the role of the funerary model in the tomb and its relationship to the wall scene. In today’s paper, I will outline the similarities and differences between funerary models and wall scenes in their representation of bread-making, offering-bearers, and cattle in procession. These three themes showcase some of the distinguishing characteristics of funerary models and will consequently demonstrate why the three-dimensional medium should not be understood as duplicates or substitutes of wall scenes, but rather a distinct type of representation that was specifically conceived for its role in provisioning the deceased for eternity.
The tomb owner certainly held a prominent position in the decorative scheme of the tomb-chapel, h... more The tomb owner certainly held a prominent position in the decorative scheme of the tomb-chapel, highlighting his importance as the key recipient of the mortuary cult. His figure dominates the wall scenes, being portrayed at a grand scale either watching over the various tasks of his estate or directly engaged in certain activities. In this space, the wealth, status and achievements of the tomb owner were on public display. Decoration also extended to the burial chamber, and in the late Old and Middle Kingdoms this comprised three-dimensional funerary models. These artworks have long been described by scholars as ‘duplicates’ or ‘substitutes’ of the wall scenes, but there are several notable differences between the designs that have yet to be acknowledged. Of particular significance is the fact that the tomb owner is rarely represented in the three-dimensional medium. This paper proposes reasons as to why this difference in representation occurred by examining the themes in which the tomb owner’s figure appears as well as the contrasting locations and technical properties of each medium. This striking difference between the two- and three-dimensional media highlights the need to re-assess the relationship between the two types of artwork. It is here proposed that the funerary model maintained a unique repertoire that was designed according to its specific purpose within the tomb.
New Perspectives on Ritual Landscapes in Ancient Egypt: Challenges and Opportunities, Macquarie University, 2019
The image in ancient Egypt served a ritual function in provisioning the deceased for the afterlif... more The image in ancient Egypt served a ritual function in provisioning the deceased for the afterlife. During the late Old and Middle Kingdoms, both funerary models and wall scenes were included in tombs to serve this purpose. The two artistic media display many similarities in design and so the models are regularly labelled by scholars as duplicates of the scenes. However, there are several significant differences that are yet to be acknowledged. Through a case study of the granary, this paper challenges our understanding of the relationship between the two media and highlights some of the unique features of the three-dimensional medium.
Annual Meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, 2019
The ancient Egyptians believed that objects and people depicted in funerary artistic representati... more The ancient Egyptians believed that objects and people depicted in funerary artistic representations would magically come into existence and provide for the tomb owner in the afterlife. The absence of animate decoration in the burial chamber, therefore, has long been understood as a means to protect the deceased from any potential harm posed by living creatures. Animate figures first appeared in the wall scenes of substructures during late Dynasty 5, but were quickly replaced by portrayals of food and drink. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom and in the First Intermediate Period, some hieroglyphic signs of humans and animals were even truncated or eliminated. Funerary models, conversely, were included in burial chambers for a more expansive time period, from late Dynasty 6 to the end of the Middle Kingdom, even though they too depicted people from everyday life. If it was believed that these statuettes would likewise come to life and serve the deceased for eternity, why would they be included in the substructure alongside the body for a considerably longer period than animate wall scenes? This paper explores the apparent contradiction by presenting the differing developments and surrounding ideology of each medium. Various proposals are suggested, with the themes represented by the artworks, the role of accompanying text, and recently discovered scenes in the burial chambers of Baqet I and Baqet II at Beni Hassan all being addressed.
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The tombs of Senbi II and Wekhhotep II are located in Section B of the cemetery, which is the main site of the Middle Kingdom tombs at Meir. Senbi II owns the largest yet most incomplete tomb at Meir, and it is clear that preparation of the tomb came to a sudden halt. The only decoration consists of two false doors, one belonging to Senbi II and the other to his wife Mersi III.
The tomb of Wekhhotep II is the last and southernmost of the tombs cut in Section B. It is relatively small considering the status of its owner, but its design, with the steps leading to the shrine, gives it an appearance of grandeur. The decoration is mostly achieved in plaster and painting, though it has suffered significant damage as a result of the destruction of most of the roof and the upper parts of the east, south and north walls of the outer room. What remains, however, demonstrates that the decoration was originally of a very high standard.
Journal Articles
significant developments in production and distribution, including
a change in where they were located in the tomb. Previously
housed in the serdab in the superstructure, the sculptures began
to be deposited in the subterranean burial chamber. Previous
explanations for this change in funerary practice have focused on
religious reasons, specifically the growth of the Osirian cult which
caused greater attention to be devoted to the substructure. However,
it is equally important to investigate the historical factors that
may have influenced this development. As these have not yet been
fully considered, this study presents the historical perspective which
should be understood alongside the religious explanations. It is
argued that an increased feeling of insecurity in society contributed
to the burial chamber becoming the preferred location for serving
sculptures. This subterranean location enabled the sculptures to no
longer have any interaction with the living and to give the tomb
owner direct and more secure access to the goods and services they
provided.
Conference Presentations
This paper will examine the known representations of the tomb owner undertaking the hippopotamus hunt from the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom and will compare them with earlier examples from private and royal contexts. It will consider the similarities and differences between the representations in order to identify possible influences in scene design. Such traditionally neglected developments in artistic repertoire are essential for our understanding of the growing power of the provincial elite. This paper will, therefore, consider the historical importance of these artistic changes and the reasons for tomb owners adopting a more active role in the scenes displayed on the walls of their tombs during the Middle Kingdom.
The tombs of Senbi II and Wekhhotep II are located in Section B of the cemetery, which is the main site of the Middle Kingdom tombs at Meir. Senbi II owns the largest yet most incomplete tomb at Meir, and it is clear that preparation of the tomb came to a sudden halt. The only decoration consists of two false doors, one belonging to Senbi II and the other to his wife Mersi III.
The tomb of Wekhhotep II is the last and southernmost of the tombs cut in Section B. It is relatively small considering the status of its owner, but its design, with the steps leading to the shrine, gives it an appearance of grandeur. The decoration is mostly achieved in plaster and painting, though it has suffered significant damage as a result of the destruction of most of the roof and the upper parts of the east, south and north walls of the outer room. What remains, however, demonstrates that the decoration was originally of a very high standard.
significant developments in production and distribution, including
a change in where they were located in the tomb. Previously
housed in the serdab in the superstructure, the sculptures began
to be deposited in the subterranean burial chamber. Previous
explanations for this change in funerary practice have focused on
religious reasons, specifically the growth of the Osirian cult which
caused greater attention to be devoted to the substructure. However,
it is equally important to investigate the historical factors that
may have influenced this development. As these have not yet been
fully considered, this study presents the historical perspective which
should be understood alongside the religious explanations. It is
argued that an increased feeling of insecurity in society contributed
to the burial chamber becoming the preferred location for serving
sculptures. This subterranean location enabled the sculptures to no
longer have any interaction with the living and to give the tomb
owner direct and more secure access to the goods and services they
provided.
This paper will examine the known representations of the tomb owner undertaking the hippopotamus hunt from the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom and will compare them with earlier examples from private and royal contexts. It will consider the similarities and differences between the representations in order to identify possible influences in scene design. Such traditionally neglected developments in artistic repertoire are essential for our understanding of the growing power of the provincial elite. This paper will, therefore, consider the historical importance of these artistic changes and the reasons for tomb owners adopting a more active role in the scenes displayed on the walls of their tombs during the Middle Kingdom.