Water resources management in Syria

Water resources management in Syria is confronted with numerous challenges. First, all of the country's major rivers are shared with Syria's neighbors, and the country depends to a large extent on the inflow of water from Turkey through the Euphrates and its tributaries. Second, high population growth and urbanisation increase the pressure on water resources, resulting in localized groundwater depletion and pollution, for example in the Ghouta near Damascus. Third, there is no legal framework for integrated water resources management. And fourth, the institutions in charge of water resources management are weak, both highly centralized and fragmented between sectors, and they often lack the power to enforce regulations. Water resources policies have been focused on the construction of dams, the development of irrigated agriculture and occasional interbasin transfers, such as a pipeline to supply drinking water to Aleppo from the Euphrates. Demand management through metering, higher tariffs, more efficient irrigation technologies and the reduction of non-revenue water in drinking water supply has received less emphasis than supply management. The government implements a large program for the construction of wastewater treatment plants including the use of reclaimed water for irrigation.

Estimates of water resources in Syria vary greatly, which is due to different assumptions about inflows from and outflows to other countries, different methodologies to account for overlaps between surface water and groundwater (springs and seepage), and poor data. For example, internal renewable water resources are estimated by the FAO at 7.1 km3/year (long-term average 1977-2001), taking into account overlaps between data between surface water and groundwater. ^[1] However, UNDP estimates the renewable surface and groundwater resources at 10 km³/year, possibly not taking overlaps between surface water and groundwater into account.^[2] An example of conflicting data within the same report is a FAO report that estimates total internal and external water resources at 16.8 km3/year. The same report estimates "actual external renewable surface water resources" at 17.335 km3/year, including 15.750 km3 of water "entering" with the Euphrates, as unilaterally proposed by Turkey, 0.335 km3 of water "entering" with the Asi-Orontes, as agreed with Lebanon, and 1.250 km3/year from the Tigris. No specific estimates are provided for outflows of surface water to neighboring countries. Finally, official data are questionable because better hydro-geological investigations of groundwater are needed to obtain more reliable data.^[3]

The most important rivers of Syria are the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Orontes and the Yarmouk River. All these rivers are shared between Syria and its neighbors. The Euphrates river flows from Turkey through Syria to Iraq, being joined in Syria by the Khabour River and the Balikh River, both of which also originate in Turkey. In 2004 a maximum of 42 % (210 m³/s) of the surface water inflow through the Euphrates granted by Turkey unilaterally to the downstream riparians (500 m3/second) were considered as Syria’s share.(source missing). The Tigris River originates in the eastern Taurus Mountains in Turkey and forms the border between Syria and Turkey on a small mountainous stretch of the river. Because of its location the river can practically not be used for drinking water supply or irrigation in Syria. There is no final agreement regarding the Syrian water rights on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. However, in March 2008 the three riparian countries formed a joint "water institute" based on Turkey that will "work toward the solution of water-related problems among the three".^[4]

The Orontes River, which flows from Lebanon through Syria to Turkey, has an average flow of 13 m³/second (403 million m³/year). While there is an agreement between Lebanon and Syria over the Orontes, there is no such agreement between Syria and Turkey. However, in March 2008 Syria and Turkey reportedly agreed to jointly build a dam on the river.^[4] The water resources of the Yarmouk river, which is shared with Jordan and Israel and flows into the Lower Jordan River, average some 447 million m³/year (14 m³/second). In 1987 Syria and Jordan signed an agreement about the sharing of the river's water and have subsequently built a dam, the Unity Dam, on the river at the border between the two countries.

Among Syria's smaller rivers is the Kabir River, which rises in Turkey and flows through the Northern coastal plain and Latakia. Another river of the same name flows through the Southern coastal plain and, on its lower stretch, forms the border between Syria and Lebanon. It has an average flow of 250 million m³/year (8 m³/second). The Quweiq River flows from Turkey to Syria and the city of Aleppo. The Barada River, which flows through Damascus, is the only major river in Syria that flows entirely inside Syrian territory.

Total annual water withdrawal was estimated at 16.69 km3/year in 2003, 88 percent of which was for agricultural purposes.^[5] In some basins, such as the Barada basin around Damascus, total water use exceeds availability of renewable water resources, resulting in overexploitation of groundwater.

There are 166 dams in the Syria with a total storage capacity of 19.7 km3. By far the largest dam is the Tabaqah dam, located near Ar Raqqah on the Euphrates and forming Lake Assad. Its purpose is production of hydropower, irrigation and storage of water for drinking water supply for Aleppo. Medium-size dams include the Al-Rastan (228 million m3), the Qattinah (200 million m3), the Mouhardeh (67 million m3) and the Taldo (15 million m3).^[5] In 2007 there were 49 dams on the Orontes River with a total storage capacity of 1.5 km3, or more than three times the average annual flow of the river. There were 42 dams on the Yarmouk with a total storage capacity of 0.25 km3. 21 dams are located in the coastal area with a total storage capacity of 0.6 km3.

In 2002, total wastewater produced in Syria was estimated at 1,364 million m3. Of this total 550 million m3 (40%) was treated in the cities of Damascus, Aleppo, Hims and Salamieh. All treated wastewater is reused for irrigation.^[5]

A comprehensive regulatory framework for integrated water resources management does not exist in Syria. Over 140 laws dealing with water have been passed since 1924. Prohibitions on well drilling and groundwater pollution have been passed, but there are no clear mechanisms for their enforcement.^[5] The Syrian water sector is both highly centralized and fragmented between sector institutions that have overlapping functions and responsibilities. A Council of General Commission for Water Resource Management is in charge of integrating water policies between various Ministries.^[5]

The Ministry of Irrigation (Syria) (MOI) is a key actor in water resource management. It is responsible for water rasources management and for the provision of all irrigation water in the country, including sewage effluent. MOI is also in charge of controlling and monitoring water quality through the Water Safety Committee.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) is responsible for the rational use of water for agricultural purposes, for minimizing water consumption and encouraging the use of modern irrigation techniques.

The Ministry of Local Administration and Environment (MLAE) is responsible for dealing with all main environmental issues. In addition, it has the task to plan and implement all governmental activities at regional level. MLAE is responsible for the protection of the environment by issuing the required standards and monitoring the quality of water for all uses.

The Ministry of Housing and Construction (MHC) is responsible for proposing, planning and executing the Government's programme in the field of water supply and sanitation. Through its 14 water and sanitation directorates (Establishments) it is also in charge of providing water supply and sanitation services.